The Breakfast Club Essay - 1499 Words

The Breakfast Club, released in 1985 by director John Hughes, is a film about five high school students, from different social groups, and their bond over shared worries and issues in Saturday morning detention. These students show the two main issues of high school students: peer pressure and family issues. The film examines the effects of these issues on student’s everyday life and view on the world. Some of these effects include bullying, contemplation of suicide, drugs, and depression. In each of the characters, The Breakfast Club shows these negative effects on teenagers and examines the concept of adulthood and fitting in from an adolescent perspective. But not only that, The Breakfast Club condemns the existence of these problems†¦show more content†¦Brian is insulted by this notion because he is aware that everyone has issues, regardless of who they are. Claire is pressured by her friends to act â€Å"cool†. Brian is pressured by his friends to be smart . Although Bender believes that he is outside of social norms, he conforms to them just like everyone and is pressured to be â€Å"above it all† and lax. John Hughes wanted all teens to know that although everyone has problems, and in moving past our apparent differences, we can bond. Each character is a representative of the various social hierarchies in a high school setting and although each of their problems are specific to their individual lifestyle, they all overarch and connect with the others. A famous scene of The Breakfast Club is the floor sharing scene, when all of the pretense is stripped away and all that is left are five scared high schoolers wanting to be better in life. In this scene, the effects of peer pressure are shown. When asked on why he was in detention, the athlete Andrew stated that he had â€Å"taped a guy’s buns together.† He explained that he did it as a prank, under the direction of his friends, but the joke soon took a dark turn. When stripping off the tape, hair and skin was removed as well. His friends and even his father did not see the issue as the subject of his cruelty was someoneShow MoreRelatedThe Breakfast Club Essay1071 Words   |  5 Pagesâ€Å"The Breakfast Club† is a film that is well-know to be a movie that explains stereotypes and societal standards. This classic movie exemplifies group dynamic in society. It does this by portraying distinct stereotypes, varying from the so-called â€Å"princess† all the way to the so-called â€Å"criminal.† At the start of the film, each member in the group is completely different and separate. They were definitely considered an out-group, which is a group of people that don’t identify with one another. ThroughoutRead MoreThe Breakfast Club Essay721 Words   |  3 PagesAfter analyzing the classic movie, The Breakfast Club it is safe to say that the characters in the movie got a little more out of detention than they were thinking. When the five characters, who are very much different from each other, all found out they were going to be forced to spend their Saturday together writing an 1000 word essay on â€Å"who [they] think they are†, you can imagine their initial reaction. Little did they know that spending the day al l together would allow them to better understandRead More The Breakfast Club Essays1632 Words   |  7 Pages The Breakfast Club The Breakfast Club is a movie about five totally different students in high school who are forced to spend a Saturday in detention in their school library. The students come from completely different social classes which make it very difficult for any of them to get along. They learn more about each other and their problems that each of them have at home and at school. This movie plays their different personality types against each other. In this essay I will go into detailRead MoreThe Breakfast Club Essay1198 Words   |  5 PagesStereotypes in The Breakfast Club High school is possibly the hardest four years of a teenager’s life. Teens are constantly being pre-labeled and prejudged before they even know who they are. These are called stereotypes and they’re made to divide people based on who others believe they are or should be. This becomes a main theme in the movie The Breakfast Club. John Hughes, the director, succeeds at breaking down stereotypes in The Breakfast Club by finding a common denominator between the fiveRead MoreThe Breakfast Club Essay1014 Words   |  5 PagesThe Breakfast Club contains important themes that resonate in many people, particularly teenagers, one of those themes being alienation and acceptance. This film perfectly portrays the alienation many students feel in high school, whether popular or unpopular, and follows it up with acceptance as they see they are not alone and find those who can help them. These themes are portrayed both through the characters and the way they act and what they have bee n through as well as in the movie as a wholeRead MoreFilm: The Breakfast Club Essay993 Words   |  4 Pages The movie The Breakfast Club was released in 1985, and is based on a group of five high school students from stereotypical cliques; the popular, jock, nerd and the outcasts, who all wind up stuck together for Saturday detention. Throughout the movie many themes present themselves such as teenage rebellion, peer pressure and family issues as the students get to know each other. The most prominent theme throughout the movie is the student’s placement in the social structure of the school. From theRead More The Breakfast Club Essay1077 Words   |  5 Pages The Breakfast Club (Intercommunications) nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;John Hughes’ 1985 film, The Breakfast Club, gives countless examples of the principles of interpersonal communication. Five high school students: Allison, a weirdo, Brian, a nerd, John, a criminal, Claire, a prom queen, and Andrew, a jock, are forced to spend the day in Saturday detention. By the end of the day, they find that they have more in common than they ever realized. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;I will begin by selectingRead MoreReview of The Breakfast Club Essay1685 Words   |  7 PagesReview of The Breakfast Club The Breakfast Club is a teen-movie set in the 1980’s directed by John Hughes. John Hughes has directed other teen films, these films include: (in chronological order)  · National Lampoon’s Vacation (1983)  · Sixteen Candles (1984)  · The Breakfast Club (1985)  · Pretty In Pink (1986)  · Home Alone (1990)  · 101 Dalmatians (1996)  · Flubber (1997). All of these films are aimed at the same audience, teenagers. These Read MoreThe Breakfast Club Essay1466 Words   |  6 Pagespage 36) Adolescent teens will most likely have difficulty with social, parental and sexual issues, physical changes to their body, identity confusion, a tendency to participate in risky behavior and establishing independence. In the movie, The Breakfast Club, a group of teens are sentenced to detention on a Saturday morning for various infractions committed while at school. The characters consists of five teens from different stereotyped groups within the school, none from the same group. Some ofRead MoreEssay about The Breakfast Club1053 Words   |  5 PagesThe Breakfast Club Almost 150 years ago, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr., expressed the following sage but sad observation in his book The Professor at the Breakfast Table: Society is always trying in some way or other to grind us down to a single flat surface. Unfortunately, this is still true today. Last week I saw the movie The Breakfast Club written and directed by John Hughes which expressed a similar theme. Fortunately, youth of every age are quite aware of what they are going through and

Gender Inequality Within A Workplace - 2144 Words

Although over time it is clear to see that gender inequality is becoming a smaller problem in today’s society, it must also be noted that it does still exist, even in the most developed parts of the world. The UNDP, 1997 in its Human Development report, stated that ‘no society treats its women as well as its men’ and to some extent this is true. However, in this essay I will be discussing different opinions and related studies in order to come to a conclusion regarding the truth behind this comment. The statement given is open ended and relatively general and as a result could refer to a number of things including inequality within a workplace, at home, in education or within religious institutions. Having said this, I will be looking at these different areas in large detail in order to gain a fair and concise point of view regarding gender inequality in today’s society. I shall start this essay with the ongoing issue regarding gender segregation at work in which Jerry A. Jacobs (1995, p.3) describes as the ‘degree to which men and women do different work†¦the more finely grained the classification system employed, the more segregation is revealed’. This quote infers an interesting point of view as it explains how gender segregation and gender inequality are clearly two different concepts and that segregation is simply the two genders engaging in different tasks and occupations. This is both understandable and logical as the difference between men and women biologicallyShow MoreRelatedGender Inequality Within The Workplace1379 Words   |  6 Pages  Gender inequality refers to unequal treatment or perceptions of individuals based on their gender. It arises from differences in socially constructed gender roles as well as biologically through chromosomes, brain structure, and hormonal differences. There is a natural difference also in the relative physical strengths of the sexes. In the workplace Income disparities linked to job stratification Wage discrimination exists when workers are equally qualified and perform the same work butRead MoreGender Inequality Within The Workplace Essay1502 Words   |  7 Pagesmovement of promoting gender equality is exponentially growing every year; however, gender inequality is still a persistent problem in today’s workforce. Each year, gender inequality, especially employment equity, the distinct barrier between genders in the workforce, has become a topic of contention as its affecting working individuals worldwide, especially women. Before examining this problem, we must further understand what gender inequality is in the workplace. Gender inequality is an ascriptive factorRead MoreGender Inequality Within The Workplace1323 Words   |  6 Pagesalways been praised for freedom and equality. However, there is a notable area of inequality in the workforce: the gender pay gap. In the Unites States, a woman makes, on average, a mere 78 cents to the dollar earned by a man. This statistic has remained steady and has only seen a small 18 cent increase in the past few decades. A majority of the wage gap is due to unsound social biases. Because gender inequality in the workforce is fueled by complex factors such as biases, it requires a complexRead MoreGender Inequality Within The Workplace Essay1209 Words   |  5 PagesGender Inequality in the Workplace The generation now has made it easier to equalize men and women but there is still a substantial amount of places where gender inequality is still happening in the workplace and where females still face discrimination. Women are often discriminated in the workplace and are usually not promoted as quickly as men are and they also receive less pay. History shows that women have not always been defined as property and thought of as second class citizens. But inRead MoreGender Inequality Within The Workplace1724 Words   |  7 Pagesthe same duties. Gender inequalities are a huge factor in the workplace. There is a lot of tension when it comes to women being over worked. The amount of responsibilities that women have, from work to home and everything in between, is ridiculous and it is all based on the gender roles that society has developed. Lastly, what really triggers feminism is the world expecting all women to portray themselves as sex objects and then to getting criticized for it . Understanding sex, gender, how they linkRead MoreGender Inequality Within The Workplace1469 Words   |  6 PagesGender inequality in the workplace has always existed, but I don t know that you could say it s getting worse, you could say that it is spreading to new fields as they are coming into existence. The STEM fields we have today such as, Cyber Security, Cyber Gaming, and Nanotechnology are still very young fields but gender inequality has still managed to take a foothold in these new fields. This is probably the best place to start the movement toward equality because many of these fields simply relyRead MoreAchieving Gender Inequality Within The American Workplace Essay1462 Words   |  6 Pagespercentages of women in leadership roles will help secure gender inequality within the American workplace which is currently not present. In the workplace it can be especially difficult for women to reach positions of great power because they’re often targets of discrimination and disrespect. In the essay Lean In: What Would You Do If You Weren’t Afraid? Sheryl Sandberg gave us her experience of her feeling this gender discrimination at her workplace. Sandberg that she was listening to a guest of honorRead MoreGender Inequality Within A Competitive Athletic Workplace870 Words   |  4 Pages101 December 9, 2015 Gender Inequality What are the types of gender inequality in this world? Inequality is when there are two things that are not the same. For example, antonyms, they are when two objects don t have similar qualities. This means there are differences between the two. It can be beneficial or very discriminating. The definition for gender inequality is the unequal treatment, or perceptions of individuals based on their gender. Gender inequality is between the male andRead MoreGender Discrimination And The Workplace1356 Words   |  6 Pages2.1 Introduction For many decades now it has been said that there has been inequality in the workplace, it has been a major issue in the workplace in terms of women not being allowed to have certain jobs as well as in terms of women not being promoted within the workplace which all contributes to women being paid less than men. According to Ryan and Branscombe (2013), gender discrimination has been defined as the differential treatment members of one group receive compared to another by many socialRead MoreGender Inequality In Australia Essay1622 Words   |  7 Pagesdominant partner, who belongs primarily to the public sphere. These historic gender norms have been deeply imbedded within Australia’s social foundation, and although society has gradually shifted away from these roles, evidence suggests that this gender inequality still riddles the modern day workplace. Liberal feminist groups have embraced this issue, and have classified it as being a true barrier to achieving the ultimate gend er equality goal. Consequently, these liberal feminists along with general

Dr. Ronald Porter Aids Essay Example For Students

Dr. Ronald Porter Aids Essay AIDS(Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) is a deadly disease for whichthere is no cure. This disease was first recognized in the mid 1980s. Thecause of AIDS is the HIV virus, and is most commonly spread by venereal routesor exposure to contaminated blood or blood products. This disease weakens thebodys immune system, allowing other diseases to occur. The most commontreatments available for this virus are the drugs called AZT, DDI, and DDC whichinterfere with HIVS ability to reproduce itself. These are the only known waysto slow down the production of the virus. This virus is spread through the exchange of body fluids {semen, blood,and blood products} this virus can stay in the body for as long as a decade withno symptoms. People who have AIDS have to go through a lot of complications andanxiety.The most common anxiety is that they have to go through their lifeknowing that they are going to die from this disease, another is the pain andsuffering they know they will have to go through. The difference between HIVand AIDS is that HIV is the virus that causes AIDS, and AIDS is a disease of theimmune system and unfortunately at this time there is no cure for. Category: Science

Dothiepin Vs Fluoxetine Mechanism Of Action And free essay sample

Dothiepin Vs. Fluoxetine ( Mechanism Of Action And Pharmacodynamics ) Essay, Research Paper Comparison Between Mechanism of Action and Pharmacodynamics of Dothiepin and Fluoxetine Description of medical specialties Mechanism of action and pharmacodynamics Dothiepin Dothiepin is a tricyclic antidepressant. It acts by advancing the effectivity of several aminoalkanes ( Dopastat, noradrenaline, and 5-hydroxytryptamine, which is besides known as 5HT and 5-hydroxytryptamine ) . It maps by suppressing their re-uptake at the terminuss of nervus cells, therefore taking to their drawn-out presence at the synaptic cleft and an increased consequence on the nerve cell. ( 1 ) The re-uptake pumps for the above aminoalkanes are responsible for cut downing the concentration of these aminoalkanes. Dothiepin works by barricading the pumps. Harmonizing to the amine hypothesis, a reduced concentration of the aminoalkanes and the ensuing lessening in aminoalkane dependent synaptic transmittal is associated with depression, hence an addition in the above would assist alleviate the symptoms of depression. ( 2 ) Dothiepin has other actions as good. We will write a custom essay sample on Dothiepin Vs Fluoxetine Mechanism Of Action And or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page It reduces norepinephrine induced CAMP formation in the encephalon, every bit good as suppressing the consumption of 5HT into thrombocytes. It besides has some anticholinergic and antihistaminic activity. ( 3 ) Dothiepin begins to take consequence after about 2-3 hebdomads. Usual day-to-day doses of Dothiepin scope from 75mg to 200mg in the more terrible instances. ( 2 ) Fluoxetine Fluoxetine belongs to a group of antidepressants known as the SSRI? s, or Selective 5-hydroxytryptamines reuptake inhibitors. It functions is similar to that of dothiepin above. It besides acts as a re-uptake inhibitor, but is extremely selective. It merely inhibits 5HT re-uptake, and lacks many of the less utile maps of dothiepin, such as the antihistaminic belongingss. ( 1 ) As above the consequence in addition in the presence of 5-hydroxytryptamine at the synaptic cleft consequences in a lessening in many symptoms of depression. Fluoxetine does nevertheless hold some side effects including sickness, shudders, loss of libido and in some instances decreased sexual map. ( 2 ) It is besides possible that it may hold an consequence on Dopastat map. In some instances it besides reduces sleep efficiency. ( 3 ) Daily doses of Fluoxetine scope between 10mg and 60mg. However it has been found that effectivity does non look to be strongly related to dose. 20mg is every bit affectional as 40mg, and there is some grounds to propose that higher doses may be even less effectual. However the lower doses result in fewer and less sever inauspicious effects. ( 3 ) Adverse effects or inauspicious drug interactions Dothiepin Adverse effects of dothiepin scope from potentially life endangering to mildly discomforting. Fatalities associated with dothiepin include cardiac failure, neonatal cardio-respiratory failure, myocardial infarction, arrhythmia, cardiac apprehension, ventricular fibrillation, shot, inborn bosom disease, hematemesis, aplastic anaemia, leucopenia, hepatorenal syndrome, cholestatic icterus, coma, neuroleptic malignant syndrome, aggravated Parkinson? s disease, intrauterine decease, nephritic failure, respiratory apprehension. These nevertheless are really rare. ( 1 ) Other terrible side effects include hepatitis, inappropriate ADH secernment, hypomania, and paroxysms. Psychotic manifestations, e.g. paranoid psychotic beliefs, may be brought about or worsened if already present. These symptoms are besides really uncommon, though less life endangering than those listed supra. ( 3 ) The less unsafe side effects are a spot more common, found in many patients, peculiarly those on higher doses of the drug. These include dry oral cavity, tachycardia, irregularity, sleepiness, sudating, sickness, purging, diarrhoea, shudder, roseolas, and intervention with sexual map. ( 3 ) The greatest dangers in overdose root from paroxysms, and the cardiac and respiratory effects listed supra. ( 3 ) Adverse drug interactions include MAO inhibitors and SSRI # 8217 ; s as coincident disposal may take to increased plasma tricyclic degrees. CNS sedatives, including intoxicant will besides hold an increased consequence when taken in concurrences with dothiepin. Anesthetics may increase the hazard of arrhythmia. Antihypertensive agent activity may be reduced by dothiepin. Barbiturates may diminish the serum concentration of dothiepin, while methyl phenidate may increase it. Smoking may cut down the serum concentration of dothiepin by increasing its metamorphosis. ( 1 ) Fluoxetine Fluoxetine appears to hold a lower incidence of inauspicious reactions, and these appear less terrible than those associated with dothiepin. ( 2 ) Up to 1990 a sum of 11 deceases that may be associated with Prozac were recorded in patients. However these were non NECESSARILY associated with the drug. The potentially life baleful side effects included hyponatremia, which appeared to be reversible when the patients stopped taking the drug. A really few instances of vasculitis have besides been diagnosed. Cases of ictuss and ictus like episodes in Prozac patients have besides been recorded. Some patients developed passion. An incidence of 0.2 % has been estimated for these episodes. It has been suggested that Prozac may be associated with increased aggression and self-destructive inclinations. It appears that in some patients fluoxetine causes motor perturbations, which may be manifested through aggression, crossness, and in utmost instances, even moving on already self-destructive ideas frequently associated with depression. 15 out of 5000 New Zealand Prozac patients have been found to hold extrapyramidal effects associated with the Prozac. Less serious effects are more common, and include anxiousness, jitteriness, insomnia, sleepiness, weariness, shudder, sudating, GI ailments, anorexia, sickness, diarrhoea, and giddiness. Significant lift of hepatic enzymes besides occurred in 0.5 % of fluoxetine patients. A high incidence of sexual disfunction was besides observed. 30 % of patients suffered from this, including decreased rousing and libido, every bit good as hold or loss of orgasmic capacity. ( 3 ) In overdose Prozac is much safer than dothiepin. The chief danger comes from the ictuss. ( 1 ) Adverse drug interactions include MAO inhibitors, which can take to terrible and sometimes fatal reactions. Tryptophan can do increased agitation, restlessness and g. i. hurt. Other antidepressants should besides be avoided, as Prozac greatly reduces their clearance. Lithium interacts with Prozac, although erratically. In some instances Lithium degrees have been seen to fall, in some to lift, even to toxic degrees. CNS active drugs warrant cautiousness when used at the same time with Prozac, as it will cut down their clearance, and increase their effects. ( 3 ) Pharmacokineticss Dothiepin Dothiepin is administered orally and is quickly and good absorbed. It is likely that in the GI piece of land the soaking up is complete. Peak concentrations in plasma are reached 3 hours after the drug is taken. The mean half life of dothiepin is 22 hours, but it varies between 11 and 40 hours. ( 3 ) The unwritten clearance of dothiepin 1.4 1.kg-1h-1. The evident value of distribution is 45 1.kg-1, but is likely slightly lower in world. There is non much fluctuation in pharmacokinetics between healthy and down patients. Dothiepin is mostly metabolized in the liver, and merely over half is excreted in piss during the following 24 hours. Elimination is lower in liver disease patients, nevertheless there is no clear clinical significance of this. ( 3 ) Fluoxetine Fluoxetine is good absorbed in the GI piece of land, whatever the dose signifier. Average clip to top out plasma concentration is about 6-8 hours. Fluoxetine is metabolized to norfluoxetine, which is besides a powerful antidepressant. ( 3 ) Flouxetine does non look to hold additive dynamicss. Higher doses result in disproportionately higher drug concentrations, most likely due to impregnation of the metabolic tracts in the liver, where Prozac is metabolized. Fluoxetine has an mean half life of 48 to 72 hours, and it? s metabolite, norfluoxetine has a half life of 6.1 yearss. The high half life is the consequence of plasma membrane binding and a high volume of distribution ( 42 1.kg-1. ) ( 3 ) As was mentioned above, Prozac is metabolized in the liver. 60-80 % is excreted in piss, and about 15 % in fecal matters. Renal damage has really small consequence on the pharmacokinetics, but hepatic damage badly decreases clearance. ( 3 ) Bibliography ( 1 ) Psychopharmacology: The 4th coevals of advancement ; Bloom F E, Kupfer D J ; Raven Press ; 1995 ( 2 ) Basic and clinical pharmacological medicine ; Katzung B G ; Appleton and Lange ; 1998 ( 3 ) Therapeutic drugs. Had to give this one dorsum before I finished with it, so no saloon info. Necessitate to look up on Library com ( 1 ) Psychopharmacology: The 4th coevals of advancement ; Bloom F E, Kupfer D J ; Raven Press ; 1995 ( 2 ) Basic and clinical pharmacological medicine ; Katzung B G ; Appleton and Lange ; 1998 ( 3 ) Therapeutic drugs. Had to give this one dorsum before I finished with it, so no saloon info. Necessitate to look up on Library com

The development of lithography and photography in the nineteenth century

Background Prior to the 19th century, art was vibrant. Artists prepared various forms of artwork for both commercial purposes and personal enjoyment or aesthetic value (Acconci Acconci Studio 2004, Para. 4). The society was appreciative of precious artwork such as Leonardo da Vinci’s Monalisa and Van Gogh’s pieces.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The development of lithography and photography in the nineteenth century specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Part of their allure was the fact that these pieces were extremely rare. Only a handful of collectors could afford the exorbitant prices set for each piece because similarly, only a few artists of the time could reproduce with skill and precision copies of the originals worth a collector’s money (Bearden 2003, Para. 3). Consequently, art was remarkable, and the few artists whose talents were undeniable reveled in the glory that their work gave t hem. However, in the 19th century, the art world experienced a few fundamental changes. The industrial era triggered most of these changes as people began to generate more income and consequently, more could afford to purchase rare art pieces (Berry 2010, Para.1). With this unprecedented increase in demand, artists had to keep up somehow, and individualistic hand printing was far too strenuous and time consuming. Ironically, not an artist but a playwright or dramatist came up with the idea and technique of lithography. He was seeking for a printing technique that would enable him to produce multiple copies of his play (Boone 2009, Para. 5). Alois Senefelder, an Austrian dramatist in Bavaria invented the technique of lithography. Initially, the only available printing techniques were relief printing, which involved carving out the surfaces of flat surfaces and applying ink on the projecting surfaces, and then pressing a paper onto the inky surfaces to provide images (Babb 1998, 34). The other technique, intaglio, or engraving involved making indentations on a flat surface and filing these with ink, and then using an uncompressed paper to get the image by sucking up the ink from the indentations (Close 2005, 24). Both of these methods were tiresome and could not satisfy the demand for reproduced artwork, hence the use of lithography and photography to complement these. The result was that artists made more reproductions over shorter periods using far less labor. Whereas this seems like a positive development, it had repercussions, as well. The generic artist almost died. Thesis During this time, as is also the case in contemporary art circles, artists could barely survive on the benefits that accrued from their various works because it took most of their lives before the world recognized or even acknowledged their work (Cornell 1995, 102). Consequently, money was not an incentive to produce art and mostly, the source of most of these artists’ ambition was the spirit of competition or restrained curiosity and interest.Advertising Looking for essay on art? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Most of them lived on commissions, which were rare and meager, so they had to find alternative means of income in other professions such as teaching and farming or even industrial labor (Dante 2007, Para. 3). For this reason, when the reproduction techniques of lithography and photography came up, most of the artists at the time viewed this as a gold mine. It was an avenue for them to produce multiple copies of either their own personal work or that of other artists. Moreover, these techniques made it possible for the artists’ works to get to the public much easier. Newspapers and televisions could now illustrate artists’ works, and the public could order for various pieces (Dali 1958, 45). The result of this was that artists produced far less original pieces focusing more on mass production to satisfy the demand. Consequently, art almost died. However, some artists sought to preserve the sanctity of original production, as opposed to mass production. These artists insisted on doing their own drawings and paintings as a way of rebelling against the new culture of mass production (DePaoli 1994, 34). Nevertheless, they were not so many as to halt the progress of lithography and photography altogether. The impact of their efforts was minimal because they too in trying to make a living had to conform to society’s demands, which could only be satisfied by applying lithography and photography among other production means (Digital Art Practices Terminology Task Force (DAPTTF) 2004, Para. 2). As a result, although their efforts did not stall the advancement of lithography and photography, it at least preserved some artistic patriotism to the traditional methods of painting and drawing. Development of Lithography Lithography as a printing technique came into o peration in 1796, when Alois Senefelder (1771-1834), an Austrian dramatist in Bavaria sought to produce multiple copies of his plays through mass reproduction (Digital Art Practices Terminology Task Force (DAPTTF) 2004, Para. 2). As noted above, prior to lithography, the dominant printing techniques were relief printing and intaglio or making engravings on surfaces and filling these with ink, and then printing. Both relief printing and intaglio featured printing on a varying surface (Doisneau 2001, Para. 3). Lithography involved printing on a flat surface. The basic principle, which informs lithography, is the mutual or simultaneous repulsion of grease and water.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The development of lithography and photography in the nineteenth century specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The artist draws an image on a fine, flat piece of limestone using a greasy crayon and then wets the limestone wit h water. Next, he applies a greasy ink on the wet surface, and the parts with the greasy crayon absorb this ink while those without crayon markings repel the ink because they are wet with water. The next step is to place a paper on the inky surface and apply sufficient pressure to ensure that the paper captures the image on the limestone (Drucker Emily 2009, 12). The artist can repeat this process as many times as s/he wishes, depending on the number of reproductions s/he intends to make. Initially, lithographs were monochromatic and crude, but as time passed, various artists sought to improve the technique resulting in chromolithography, which involved the use of up to twenty different colors on an image. In 1820, artists discovered that it was far better to use thin metal plates, and they turned to zinc, aluminum, and copper plates. The advantage of using metal was that one could bend it and fit it onto the cylinder of a rotary press for high-speed printing. With the invention of lithography, the limitations of engravings no longer limited artists in the production of their works and so they could produce better-detailed images (Ernst 2005, 56). Later, photolithography saw to the reproduction of photographs, drawings, and illustrations. Effects of mass-production of lithographs on art With lithography as a means of mass reproduction, hand produced art dwindled. Most artists focused on satisfying the demand for already existing artwork and forgot about creating original work (Esaki 1957, 79). Even those who still created original pieces were seasonal in their artistry because they would draw a piece and take time off to market and reproduce it, and only draw another when the one they were reproducing stopped selling. Moreover, the development of lithography resulted in a compromise, in the quality of art. Many artists were in a rush to complete artworks and others sought to replicate either aspects of or the entire lot of their colleagues’ works becau se these were all readily available (Hawley 1997, 110). Consequently, if an artist’s personal business were not flourishing, he would simply take up another artist’s work and reproduce it for sale (Weitman 1999, 43). However, not all artists were as greedy or unfocussed. Some of them rallied against the use of this technology in producing artistic work. These artists argued that, mass-reproduced artwork could never take the place of originally produced pieces simply because the mass-reproduced pieces lacked the careful attention and dedication of the artist in working on each piece (Thompson 2004, 25).Advertising Looking for essay on art? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Despite the fact that this argument carried weight as illustrated by the relatively cheaper prices of mass reproductions, it neither stopped the middle-class consumer, which was the bulk of the society anyway, from purchasing these pieces for hanging on their walls nor other consumers from using lithographic images in advertising and entertainment (Raimondo 2004, 5). Consequently, business in art flourished. This, coupled with the fact that even the artists who were against this new technology still profited from the same technology, watered down any effective fire that the arguments may have started. Examples of artists who sought to preserve the sanctity of hand-produced artwork include William Blake, specifically when he produced his Jerusalem painting (Morris 2009, 32), and Dante Gabriel Rossetti, a painter, poet, and illustrator who was a romanticist after the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. Their intention in producing counter-culture artwork was to reform art by rejecting mechani cal processes in art production. Dante Rossetti’s The Girlhood of Mary Virgin, 1849 was one such counter-cultural piece whose uniqueness was unrivalled. It was a piece of double artwork comprising of two accompanying sonnets and a comment on the painting (McGann 2009, Para. 3). Nevertheless, although they waged a valiant war, Blake and Rossetti’s livelihood were dependent on industrialization (Melua 2010, Para. 3). Blake made a living out of commercial commissions while Rossetti was a translator and illustrator of mass produced literature (Lewis 1990, Para. 3). Consequently, theirs was a case of preaching water and drinking wine, and their artists ignored them. However, they had an impact on art in the 19th century to the extent that they preserved originality in artistry by producing their own pieces originally. Development of Photography Photography refers to the art of drawing with light (Berry 2010, Para. 3). The photographer uses light to record or capture an obje ct or a scene on a light-sensitive screen or surface (Goldberg 1991, 34). In photography, the camera is an extension of a person’s eye and mind. As a camera, it is simply an object and only becomes a constructive tool that one can use to capture images once a person with the necessary skill wields it (Jeanne 2003, 96). The concept of photography bears heavily on light control. As early as during Leonardo da Vinci’s time, the principle of camera obscura (Berry 2010, Para. 4), simply translated to mean ‘darkened room’ had grasped the attention of many artists. Initially, artists used a large room with a diminutive hole on one of the walls to serve as the only source of light and consequently set in focus a given image. The resultant image was inverted but exceptionally clear and detailed (Kluver 1997, 40). The concept evolved into a pinhole camera and reduced in size until artists finally had a portable camera with two mirrors at 45 degrees to produce an upr ight image. Nevertheless, the images were temporary in nature, and as soon as the object moved or the light shifted, they would fall out of focus. In the early 19th century, Joseph Nicephore Niepce conducted various experiments with lithography and he discovered a method that could permanently capture images in a camera obscura for at least eight hours (Lewis 1990, Para. 4). This was in 1827 when Niepce recorded the world’s first surviving photograph. Elsewhere, Daguerre had been experimenting with silver iodides to capture images on a light sensitive film. Upon hearing about Niepce’s success, he went over, and they formed a partnership in 1829. Under Niepce’s guidance, Daguerre invented the Daguerreotype, which involved production of images on a chemical surface (Berry 2010, Para. 2). However, one could only produce a single image at a time, and the procedure was complex (Lunar 2008, Para. 3). Moreover, reproduction through the same process was impossible, and the object had to remain motionless for several minutes before the artist captured its image. Nevertheless, the resultant images were of high quality with details clearly captured and artists soon adopted this method in the production of portraits. Examples of artists famous for this technique include Albert Sands Southworth and Josiah Johnson Hawes among others (Tucker et al 2003, 23). William Henry Fox Talbot used different chemicals to come up with a different procedure that had almost similar results in terms of image production, although his images were of a poorer quality (Mercer 2008, Para. 3). However, an artist could use his method to reproduce images and so he had a large following. Examples of some prominent photography artists include Roger Fenton, who produced the camp scenes of the Crimean war and Matthew Brady and his associates, who reproduced the scenes of the American Civil War. Others are Hine Lewis and Jackson William Henry, a landscape and portrait photographer respectively, who worked as the official photographer for the United States Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories (Berry 2010, Para.3). Effects of mass reproduced photographic images on art Initially, many artists rejected the notion of photography as a viable artwork. This is because they focused on the disconnection between the photographer and the camera, which was more technical or mechanical. Consequently, there was disparity in distinguishing the photographer as the artist as opposed to the camera. To counter this argument, Pierre Bourhan says of the Japanese artist Keiichi Tahara, â€Å"Once the eyes and the viewfinder have done their work, Tahara’s hands continue the search. In subsequent elaboration, the artist chooses the support (the glass plate), the dimensions, the form of treatment, the framing, then puts it all together and situates it in space – the installation. Then and only then, after going through these transitional stages, do we h ave the work – fulfilled, transcendent, as far removed from reality as a statue or a painting can be† (104-105). Similarly, Joan Fontcuberta stated of Pablo Picasso, Salvador Dali, Joan Miro, and Antoni Tapies, â€Å"in the domain of cameras and photochemistry†¦photography became a fabulous apparatus for intensifying the gaze and a medium for generating novel experiments. In a word, they showed us once and for all that lens, light and photosensitive materials are merely tools that, like the brush and pigment, further the artist’s work† (Fontcuberto 1995, 9). Finally, Fontcuberta states of Salvador Dali, â€Å"In the same way that automatic writing enabled unforeseen poetic associations to be revealed, so photography provided a way for the Surrealists to fix the unconscious of the gaze. Dali was attracted unusually early on by the transformative capacity of the camera†¦ pictorial interventions on different photos and various collages help us comp rehend the powerful influence of the photographic vision† (91). The results of introducing photography into the 19th century were both positive and negative. For instance, artists could now record realistic images that would ordinarily have taken skilled artists hours or even days to draw within mere seconds (Melua 2010, Para. 2). It was also a powerful means of communication, a mode of visual expression, and a means for the crystallization of memories. Moreover, photographers’ skill was applicable across the board ranging from astronomy, to medical diagnosis and even industrial quality control. It introduced a technique that could capture details too minute or fast in motion for the naked eye, and could be placed in areas too dangerous for human reach (Meggs 1992, 34). With all these new and appealing qualities, the public swayed in its loyalty to traditional art. People found photography to me more convenient and cheap as they could use the cameras themselves to captu re images without the need for an artist. With time, people adopted photography as a career or as a hobby that kept them occupied (Mazur 1997, 57). Soon, museums started displaying photography work and critics began to scrutinize various elements of images captured in various fashions. Many forgot about art, and only rich collectors seemed interested in acquiring paintings or drawings. Consequently, the world forgot about traditional artists once more, and this time, it seems as though it will be for good because photography has only progressed since then (Mason 1982, 45). Nevertheless, if one is being objective about art, then there is no reason to see this as a digression of art rather than a progression because traditional art comprised of images such as portraits of live personages or captures of various sceneries and other features of an artist’s environment (Lewis 1990, Para. 3). Photography is just a faster and more accurate depiction of the same. The only deduction is the artist’s time and labor. Conclusion Lithography and photography were new techniques that took the 19th century by a storm. Consequently, different people reacted differently to their integration into the world of art. Nevertheless, they were progressive in their contributions to the art world because the product of photography for instance was the goal of any artist who drew or painted. Images resulting from photography were unflawed, easier and faster to produce. The artists would undoubtedly feel cheated of the experience of coming up with that image, but in the end, everybody was happier with the quality of photographs. Lithography, on the other hand, was also a means to an end, the end being the mass reproduction of artwork (Meggs 1997, 45). Due to the industrialization that rocked Europe in the 19th century, more people could afford paintings, although not at the exorbitant prices of original works, but at a standardized price. To satisfy this demand, artists needed a printing technique that was more efficient than hand production, and lithography provided this solution (Tucker et al 2009, 36). As to whether lithography and photography resulted in a near death of traditional artistry, the answer is affirmative. Nevertheless, if one looks at all this from the perspective of the original intent of art, or the goal of an artist commissioned to draw or paint the portrait of a live subject, photography does not seem lethal to art at all, it seems like a solution to a problem or the artist’s goal. Appendix of images The Belle Epoque, a lithographic image. The 1845 poster for Honore de balzac’s Petites Miseres de la Vie Conjugale (The Little Miseries of Married Life) another lithograph. A lithograph with the Ukiyo-e influence on a belle à ©poque design. Reference List Acconci, Vito Y. Acconci Studio. Acts of Architecture at Contemporary Art Museum,  Houston 2001: Multi-Bed Series: #1, #2, #3, #5. New York: Collection of Acconci/ Acconci Studio, 2004. Babb, Fred C. Go To Your Studio and Make Stuff: the Fred Babb Poster Book. New York: Workman Publishing Co., Inc., 1998. Bearden, Romare B. Train Whistle Blues I, 1964: Collection of Laura Groscine, 2003. Web. Berry, Danielle H. History-What is Photography? Web. Boone, Gallery G. The Color Explosion: Nineteenth-Century American Lithography. Web. Close, Chuck M. Self-Portrait/White Ink, 1978; Self-Portrait, 1999; Self-Portrait, 2000;  Self-Portrait/Pulp, 2001. Chuck Close Prints: Process and Collaboration. Houston: University of Houston’s Blaffer Gallery, 2005. Cornell, Joseph V. Custodian (Silent Dedication to MM), 1963. Contemporary Arts Museum, Houston. Elvis + Marilyn: 2 x Immortal. Houston: University of Houston’s Blaffer Gallery, 1995. Dali, Salvador E. Baby Map of the World, 1939. Il volto di Mae West. Chicago: The Salvador Dali Art Gallery, 1958. Dante, Gabriel R. In Daydreams of Conformity. Revolt In the Desert. Web. DePaoli, Geri A. Ess ays and artworks created as cultural commentary or homage to the  mythic icons of American pop-culture – Elvis Presley and Marilyn Monroe.† In Elvis + Marilyn: 2 x Immortal. New York: Rizzoli International Publications, Inc., 1994. Digital Art Practices Terminology Task Force (DAPTTF). Printmaking Techniques. 2004. Web. Doisneau, Robert E. Musician in the Rain. Masters of Photography. Masters of  Photography. Web. Drucker, Johanna G., Emily, McVarnish S. Graphic Design History. In A Critical  Guide. New Jersey: Pearson Education, 2009. Ernst, Max M. The Couple, 1925. Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen. Imagine That!  Activitiies and Adventures in Surrealism. Rotterdam: Word Press, 2005. Esaki, Reiji F. Collage of Babies, 1893. The History of Japanese Photography.  Hokkaido: Hakodate Municipal Library, 1957. Fontcuberto, Joan W. Experimental photographic work of Picasso, Miro, Dali and  Tapies at Primavera Fotografica Biennial Festival, Barcelona. In The Artist and the Photograph. Barcelona: Actar, 1995. Goldberg, Vicki J. Discussion of emotionally charged iconic photographs describes  impact on society, influencing political and sociological behavior. In The Power of Photography: How Photographs Changed Our Lives. New York: Abbeville Publishing Group, 1991. Hawley, Michael B. Artworks use digital image â€Å"tiles† from Internet retried by software  program. In Photomosaics: Robert Silvers. New York: Henry Holt and Company, Inc., 1997. Jeanne, Claude C. Running Fences, 1972-76. Collection of artist. Project for  the Charles M. Schulz Museum,. Postcard 4 x 6in.,compare Goldsworthy’s Storm King Wall,1997-98. California: Santa Rosa, 2003. Kluver, Billy M. One day’s photographs of Picasso and friends at Cafà © de la Rotonde,  focusing on Jean Cocteau’s 1916-17 collaboration with Satie and Picasso on the ballet, Parade. In A Day with Picasso: Twenty-four Photographs by Jean Cocteau. Cambridge: The MIT Press , 1997. Lewis, John G. Printed ephemera : the changing uses of type and letterforms in English  and American printing. Web. Lunar, Kelb D. Early Printing Processes. Web. Mason, Robert G. Photography as a Tool. In Photography introduced as tool of  human exploration in science, technology, and aesthetics. Chicago: Time-Life Books, 1982. Mazur, Thomson J. The Origins ofGraphic Design in America, 1870-1920. Toronto: Yale University Press, 1997. McGann, Jerome J. Dante Gabriel Rossetti 1849. In The Girlhood of Mary Virgin. Web. Meggs, Phillip W. A History of Graphic Design. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1992. Meggs, Phillip W. A History of Graphic Design. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1997. Melua, Josh L. Printings, Drawings and Photographic Images. Web. Mercer, Peter K. History of printing. Web. Morris, William C. Balance Through Art. Web. Raimondo, Joyce N. Imagine That! Activities and Adventures in Surrealism. New York: Watson-Guptill Publications, 2004. Thompson, Jeffery D . Patterns structure brainstorming, creative work, and meditative inspiration. In Creative Mind System. Chicago: The Relaxation Company, 2004. Tucker, Anne G. et al. The History of Japanese Photography. New Haven: Yale U. P., 2003. Tucker, Anne G. et al. The History of Japanese Photography. New Haven: Yale U. P., 2009. Weitman, Wendy D. Printmaking and Pop Art development in catalogue for exhibition  at Museum of Modern Art. In Pop Impressions Europe/USA: Prints and Multiples from the Museum of Modern Art. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1999. This essay on The development of lithography and photography in the nineteenth century was written and submitted by user Lexi House to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Avian Influenza essays

Avian Influenza essays Avian Influenza is a contagious virus that usually infects all species of birds, but it has recently been tracked to infect humans as well, putting many people at fear of an influenza pandemic. This virus is normally found in free flying birds for example, shorebirds, gulls and other seabirds. The problem arises when domestic poultry like chicken and turkeys become infected and has recently been connected to humans today. The first reports of Avian Influenza were in Italy in 1878 where it was seen as a serious disease of chickens. At the time they called it the fowl plague it wasnt till many years later that they changed it to Avian Influenza. It was 1955 when they determined it one of the influenza viruses. What determines a virus to be influenza is whether or not the virus particle has an envelope with glycoprotein projections with hem agglutinating and neuraminidase activity. This sounds very complicated but, these two surface antigens are identified in simpler terms with only the letters H and N. It has been recorded that there are 15 hem agglutinating and 9 neuraminidase antigens in a type A influenza. Which brings us to types A, B, C influenzas; type A is the most common influenza virus that will affect domestic animals in addition to the possibility of humans. Type B and C influenza does not have the ability to infect domestic animals, it is not as harmful. Surprisingly, Avian influenza norm ally doesnt make wild birds sick, but domesticated birds become very ill and in many instances it will kill them. Generally this virus doesnt infect humans; however there have been some reports for human outbreaks since 1997, letting us know that Avian Influenza is a risky Type A influenza. In order to see the symptoms of Avian Influenza in humans we need to know the characteristics of Avian Influenza in birds. The virus is carried in their intestines and spread by shedding it. The ways in which birds shed th...

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Mian Muhammad Nawaz Sharif: Corruption in the Government

Mian Muhammad Nawaz Sharif: Corruption in the Government Introduction: Mian Muhammad Nawaz Sharif, a known politician, businessman and currently serving as the 18th Prime Minister of Pakistan, he was also elected as Prime Minister in 1990 to 1993 and 1997 to 1999. Sharif is the president of Pakistan’s largest political party known as Pakistan Muslim League Nawaz (PMLN) which has formed government in 2013 (Crilly, 2013). The case which I will discuss in this paper is related to the corruption in government sector. In this case Prime Minister Sharif is the key person who has misused his positions, authority and power throughout his political career. Sharif moved into politics in early 1980’s and in 1985 he was appointed as Chief Minister of Punjab the most populous province (Hindustantimes, 2013), his political career was just started and he realized the concept of getting rich through stealing money from national asset. History evidently says that he used different strategies to add up in his personal wealth which include kickbacks, bribe a nd stealing from public funds, money laundering, tax evasion and misuse of official resources and using them for personal use. All these acts has led Sharif Pakistan’s 4th richest person (Khan, 2013). The corruption: Sharif was already involved in his family business – Ittefaq Industries before entering to politics, but during his political control in Punjab in 1980 and early 1990’s Ittefaq Industries raised up from its original single manufactory into 30 businesses producing paper, sugar, steel and textiles with total $400 million of income, became one of the largest private multinational company in Pakistan (Baker, 2005, pp. 82-83). To enrich his personal wealth first thing he did upon becoming prime minister in 1990 was build a long super highway from Lahore to Islamabad city, the estimated cost of the project was 8.5 billion rupees, the project gone through 2 biddings. Daewoo a Korean company fortify its proposal in secret meetings, the job was done well but the cost of project went over 20 billion rupees. In actual the money over 8.5 billion was in the pockets of both the minister and the construction company. The same kind of scandal was done in wheat deal, Sharif purchased wh eat from a private US and Canada company which were close partner of him and paid $58 million from national asset which were way more than market value. By purchasing wheat from his associate benefits Mr. Sharif and half of the money were kept by him and his partner (Baker, 2005, p. 84). Another major scandal in which Sharif involved was of bribery. He and his fellows were involved in taking bribery. Lt. General Naseerullah Babar, the interior minister had revealed and prove evidence that the Inter-Service Intelligence (ISI) distributed money to acquire the loyalty of various politicians including Nawaz Sharif to control the elections of 1990 and bring about the defeat of Pakistan Peoples’ Party (another political party). This case is still pending in Supreme Court of Pakistan for the last 24 years (Jhootay Log, 2011). Tax evasion and unpaid bank loans were also the favorite ways for Sharif to get rich. On his loss of power the upraising political party came up with the list of 322 largest loan defaulters representing $3 Billion out of $4 Billion owned to banks. Sharif and his brother was labelled for $ 60 Million, Mr. Sharif was expanding his business and properties internationally by using public funds, 3 in British Virgin Islands by the names of Nescoll, Nielson, and Shamrock and other in Islands known as Chandron Jersey Pvt. Ltd. How things Revealed: In 1994 Pakistan’s Federal Investigation Agency started looking into financial affairs of Sharif and his family, the inquiry was supervised by Rahman Malik, Director General of the agency, the inquiry took 5 years and they came up with the shocking revelations in 1998. The records, includes signed affidavits from Pakistani officials, property records and bank files and other government document stated that Mr. Sharif and his family benefited from national wealth and all above scandals were revealed at that time. The report in the end state that â€Å"The extent and magnitude of this corruption is so staggering that it has put the very integrity of the country at stake.† (Baker, 2005, p. 84). Rahman Malik in an interview said that â€Å"No other leader of Pakistan has taken that much money from the banks. There is no rule of law in Pakistan. It doesn’t exist.† (Wwiner LeVine, 1999) The consequences: After things were revealed General Pervaiz Musharraf (former chief of army) and other political leaders and legislators convicted Sharif and penalized to life prison, but in 2000 deported him to Saudi Arabia. His wrong actions motivated other politicians to continue on the same track of corruption with the nation as later in 2008 another corrupt politician Asif Ali Zardari (former Prime Minister) appeared and looted the nation the same way Sharif did. The trust of people on politicians flew away as their money was misused by those with power and authorities, patriotism decreased and now people are more interested in personal growth rather than cumulative growth as nation. In addition to this mess in 2013, Sharif again become the Prime Minister of Pakistan and all the charges were cleared by National Accountability Bureau (NAB) to let him take part in election , this has showed the nation that money and power speaks more than anything else. (Nasir, 2013) Ethical Issues: The key ethical issues which were violated in the case were betraying to the citizens of the country, misusing and stealing of national assets, theft, taking and giving bribe to accomplish personal interest and unethical use of power and authorities. The Prime Minister in a democratic country is elected by its citizens as they trust them and give the responsibility to use national assets for the growth of country and value the basic understandable principle and ideology of the nation but in Sharif’s case he did many unethical act for which he was supposed to be guilty but somehow he managed to escape and pushed the values and feeling of citizens into stake. His duty and principles ruined the phenomena of ethical politics his decisions in political career were neither systematic, self-conscious, or reflective nor well-reasoned. As it is said â€Å"Ice melt from the top† his acts also let other government officials to escape through the hands of law and continue to work u nethically. Laws are not made to break and in the eye of legislation everyone is equal. But in this case equality has disappeared like smoke in air. What’s greater than a loss of trust from citizens of a country towards it’s appointed leaders, current political condition had made a great impact on a nation’s social ethical dimensions, things that were supposed to be ethically wrong has now become a part of system, adding to this mess lack of literacy has contributed to choose a wrong political leader. References Baker, R. W. (2005). Dirty Money at Work. In Capitalisms Achilles Heel (pp. 82-83). Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley Sons, Inc. Crilly, R. (2013, May 11). Pakistan elections: Nawaz Sharif eyes return to power. Retrieved from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/pakistan/10046017/Pakistan-elections-Nawaz-Sharif-eyes-return-to-power.html Hindustantimes. (2013, May 12). Once exiled, Nawaz Sharif makes triumphant return to Pak politics. Retrieved from http://www.hindustantimes.com/: http://www.hindustantimes.com/news-feed/pakistanpolls2013/once-exiled-nawaz-sharif-makes-triumphant-return-to-pak-politics/article1-1059015.aspx Jhootay Log. (2011, Dec). Retrieved from http://jhootaylog.wordpress.com/: http://jhootaylog.wordpress.com/nawaz-sharifs-corruption/ Khan, E. (2013). Top 10 Pakistani Richest People. Retrieved from http://www.wonderslist.com/: http://www.wonderslist.com/top-10-pakistans-richest-people/ Nasir, J. (2013, Apr 9). NAB, FBR clear Sharif brothers on charges of tax evasion. Retrieved from http://www.aaj.tv: http://www.aaj.tv/2013/04/nab-fbr-clear-sharif-brothers-on-charges-of-tax-evasion/ Wwiner, T., LeVine, S. (1999, October 21). Former Leader of Pakistan May Face Corruption Trial. New York Times. [Dirty Money of Mian Muhammad Nawaz Sharif] – June 20141 The South-East of England: Land Development Issues The South-East of England: Land Development Issues Pressure on development land in the South-East of England: The need for sustainable architecture. Introduction Chapter One Literature Review Chapter Two Development Land Chapter Three Sustainable Architecture Chapter Four South-East of England The purpose of this dissertation is to discuss and evaluate the pressure on development land in the South- East of England, and how that pressure relates to the need for sustainable architecture. 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The reasons why the South-East of England should have a need for sustainable architecture will also be examined in depth. The case for making all the new construction projects designed around the concepts of sustainable architecture shall also be examined, to discuss whether more environmentally focused building designs will lessen the impact of new construction programmes, as well as reducing long-term pollution. Introduction Sustainable architecture and the use of development land are closely linked with the practices and theories of what form the basis of urban and rural planning, as well as ideas concerning the necessity for long-term environmental sustainability. Urban, and to a lesser extent rural planning, became more widespread in their application throughout Britain after 1945, when increased levels of central government intervention were experienced in many social and economic fields. Planning was deemed to be the best way of solving Britain’s housing problems (Taylor, 1998 p. 3). Increased levels of urban and rural planning were justified at the end of the Second World War due to the need for extensive post-war reconstruction. The South-East of England in general, and London in particular had suffered from widespread bomb damage, which meant that fully or partially destroyed houses, factories, and retail units had to be replaced by well planned buildings which would be an improvement upon the previous buildings. In the immediate post-war period it was believed that a systematic use of town and country planning would be essential for the reconstruction of Britain, with a much higher standard of building to match higher employment, the welfare state, and the National Health Service. The purpose of these policies and institutions was to prolong life and promote good health throughout the whole population (Meller, 1997 p67). The increased use of urban and rural planning was not intended to protect the environment in an ecological way, or indeed to promote sustainable architecture, rather it was greatly expanded in scope to make the most rational use of scarce development land. However, there would be measures adopted which would conserve large areas of countryside, and give protection despite the need to re-house millions of families in 1945 (Southall, 2000 p. 336). There were groups that wished to conserve specific areas that supported rare forms of animal and plant life, and even groups that wished to preserve old historical buildings, as well as buildings distinguished by their architectural styles (Meller, 1997 p67). When added together such groups did not equate to an ecological lobby that intended to change agricultural, architectural, or industrial practices to protect the environment. These groups however, were able to heavily influence the decision to restrict urbanisation taking over the countr yside. Post-war reconstruction was the catalyst for the largest programmes of publicly funded construction in Britain. Public expenditure was needed due to the sheer scale of reconstruction required, with London and the South-East of England being a major beneficiary of those programmes. Architecture and planning were used for these large-scale programmes rather than just for individual buildings. The involvement of central government in the promoting and funding of large-scale public building programmes and the use of development land was high until the early part of the 1970s (Greed, 1996 p. 35). Such wide-ranging building programmes were not only intended to replace the buildings destroyed during the Second World War. The post-war building programmes were also intended to replace the slums in the inner cities of London, Birmingham, Liverpool, as well as elsewhere. The construction programmes were intended to make the South-East of England a much more hospitable place to live in, just as the rest of Britain was also intended to be like (Sheail, 2002 p. 62). New construction and renovation of existing houses was an imperative, as â€Å"2 million of them condemned and another 3 million lacking in essentials† (Southall, 2000 p. 337). The South-East of England also benefited from the construction of new towns such as Milton Keynes and Stevenage that were planned as entire towns with purpose built domestic housing and business premises. The Atlee government was so keen upon the creation of new towns to solve the post-war housing shortages that it regulated such construction through the New Town Act of 1946 (Sheail, 2002 p. 62). The construction of the New Towns was considered to be essential for both high economic growth and for solving the national post-war housing shortage. The Atlee government regarded the new towns as being highly beneficial to people’s health as they moved away from major cities and industrial areas to places with cleaner air (Meller, 1997 p67). In ecological terms such construction was harmful to the environment as more land was built upon and it meant a greater amount of pollution from traffic emissions, though of course nobody understood such implications at that time. Improvements in transport infrastructure and increasing levels of car ownership meant that the new towns were economically viable, as well as allowing their inhabitants to commute to the major cities to work in them (Daniels, Bradshaw, Shaw, Sidaway, 2005 p. 147). Urban planning was thus considered to be very useful for the progress and development of Lo ndon and the South-East of England, which traditionally has been the most populous and prosperous region of Britain. Urban planning was also intended to increase the prosperity levels of the other regions in Britain to be as high as possible to match the levels achieved in the South-East of England (Southall, 2000 p. 337). Controlled expansion of urban areas into the new towns was intended to solve the immediate post-war housing shortage and revive the British economy, whilst leaving the great bulk of the countryside untouched by new housing construction (Taylor, 1998 p.3). Previous improvements in agricultural techniques meant that farming became more efficient nationally which had quickened the pace of urbanisation in Britain as a whole. Urbanisation in Britain had already had a strong impact upon the environment that went beyond the replacement of the countryside with polluting factories and unhealthy slum housing (Southall, 2000, p. 335). Higher crop yields from less land had the consequence that more land in rural areas became available to be used as development land. The greater availability of former agricultural land meant that is was easier to find enough land to construct new towns or expand existing cities across Britain. Urbanisation was a process that was accelerated by the need of industrial towns and cities to find workers to continue their expansion (Goudie Viles, 1997 p. 5). To begin with, the majority of new homes were traditional style houses that formed large council house estates right across the country, in architectural terms there was very little innovation or thought given to making the new housing stock architecturally sustainable or environmentally friendly. More attention was instead devoted to making all new houses comfortable, clean, and ensuring they were being built to last (Greed, 1996 p. 35). The new homes were intended to be better and larger than the ones that they had replaced. The majority of large cities and the new towns in Britain had millions of council houses built in their areas between 1945 and the early 1970s. However, it was much harder to find adequate amounts of development land in inner city areas which led to the building of high rise tower blocks which allowed a greater number of people to be housed without increasing the total area of the development land required (Sheail, 2002 p. 62). Unfortunately, high rise tower bl ocks constructed during the 1960s and the 1970s in the South-East of England, as well as nationally failed to be an adequate form of long- term and sustainable architecture that allowed people to be housed in safety or comfort. The failure of many high rise tower blocks to be sustainable forms of housing had the affect of increasing the pressure on development land. It has also meant that tower blocks have had to be refurbished or more frequently demolished (Meller, 1997 p. 63). As the picture below shows the 1950s and the 1960s also witnessed the construction of low-rise apartment blocks which have proved to be longer lasting than tower blocks built during the same period of time. The picture is of apartment flats constructed in Ham Common in Richmond between 1955 and 1958 (Frampton, 1997 p. 266). Although the amount of new housing construction was considerable not all the available land had been developed or built upon. Land remained set aside for agricultural purposes, whilst other land was left un-built upon and not always used for farming. The land that was left alone and was set aside and thus not allowed to be used for domestic housing or industrial sites were referred to as the green belt. The green belt was created to act as a buffer zone between urban and rural areas as a means to limit urbanisation (Greed, 1996 p. 82). Central government set aside areas that were designated as green belt zones to preserve the countryside nationally as well as solely in the South-East of England. Although, it was possible to build on green belt land the process of gaining planning permission from central government and the relevant local authority was a long drawn out one which deterred most property developers and construction firms from doing so. Local interest groups have often bei ng highly vocal in their opposition to any schemes that have been suggested (Clapp, 1994 p. 138). Clapp estimated that with national parks and designated green belt zones that in England and Wales â€Å"more than a fifth of the countryside now has stringent protection against development† (Clapp, 1994 p. 140). Therefore, the bulk of available development land was concentrated in urban areas, often referred to as brown field sites (Greed, 1996 p. 82). For central government there are advantages for using brown field sites (Kim Rigdon, December 1998 p. 5). For instance, using such sites allows for economic regeneration, employment creation as well as less pressure to build on green belt land. Recycling land on brown field sites is a method of preserving rural areas being used as development land (Clapp, 1994 p.139). The pressure to use greater amounts of development land has arguably increased significantly in recent years throughout Britain as a whole. The pressure to use development land has risen due to a combination of social, economic, and political factors. For instance, in social terms the demographic changes to the British population have had significant, and it could even be argued, profound effects upon the demand for development for new construction programmes. These demographic changes have occurred as a consequence of the British population ageing, the increasing number of adults who live on their own, as well as the major increase in the number of immigrants who have settled in Britain in the past decade or so. These changes have meant that more people within Britain are seeking a higher number of places to live in. Another reason for the raised levels of pressure upon development land is caused by the potential financial gains from building new houses, as well as new retail or ind ustrial complexes. The level of financial gains that could be made has been boosted since 1979 by the shifting away from the publicly funded housing programmes to a market led approach to determining the rates of new housing construction and the ownership of existing housing (Allmendinger and Thomas, 1998 p. 5). Of course even greater numbers of domestic homes and retail premises has a knock on effect on the amount of infrastructure such as schools, hospitals, and roads which are required in Britain as a whole. The building of new forms of infrastructure will only increase the environmental impact of new construction programmes (Kim Rigdon, December 1998 p. 5). A fuller explanation and a more comprehensive examination of the increased pressures on the development land in Britain in general will be presented in the specific chapter on development land. The more detailed evaluation of the pressures upon development in the South-East of England will be presented in the specific chapter about the South-East of England. Not only has there been pressure to use more development land in Britain generally and in the South-East of England in particular, there has been more pressure for new construction programmes to use building techniques and technology linked with sustainable architecture. Sustainable architecture may have been a concept, which started in the United States, yet it could be very important to put its ideas into action across the globe (Kim Rigdon, December 1998 p. 5). The notion of sustainable architecture is in itself influenced by ideas about making or enabling architecture maximise the utility and the subsequent life span of all new construction, whilst minimising the amount of resources needed in the initial construction and the maintenance of buildings. Sustainable architecture, when possible, uses resources that is renewable, recyclable, and biodegradable. There are various motivations for adopting sustainable architecture when it comes down to the construction and the completion of all new building programmes. Motivations that include the minimising of development land used, as well as making use of new technology to conserve energy, the conservation or recycling of finite resources, as well as reducing the levels of water consumption. Reducing the level of pollution and attempting to slow down the consequences of global warming are also factors in the promotion and implementation of sustainable architecture (Kim, Rigdon, Graves, August 1998 p. 5). Of course, there is the influence of legislation upon the use of sustainable architecture techniques to reduce the environmental and ecological impact of new construction programmes. Property developers and construction firms have to comply with measures to protect the environment introduced by the British government and the European Union (Hough, 2004 p. 190). As will be shown in the specific chapter about sustainable architecture the majority of methods used to improve environmental sustainability are relatively straightforward to incorporate into the designs of new building programmes, and in some cases into existing buildings. Sustainable architecture could be achieved by using construction materials that are less damaging to the environment, or materials that have been obtained from recycled and renewable resources. Making buildings as environmentally sustainable as possible during new construction projects (as will be examined in greater depth) will achieve the over all objectives of those that practice and argue for the implementation of sustainable architecture. It is most practical to install features or equipment which enhances environmental sustainability during new construction projects rather than afterwards. The pressures to adopt sustainable architecture in many ways are contradictory, yet are also connected with the pressure s to raise the levels of development land used up for new building programmes. Other motivations for adopting sustainable architecture include applying measures that are requirements for gaining planning permission, as well as ensuring that all new buildings comply with all the minimum standards for safeguarding the environment set by the British government and also by the European Union. The British government has set standards for domestic and retail buildings since the 1950s. For instance, to rid London of its previously renowned smog and fog by reducing smoke emissions from domestic homes and factories alike under the auspices of the Clean Air Act. The European Union has taken a greater interest in promoting environmental sustainability since the 1980s, believing that such actions to protect the natural environment on a regional rather than a national basis would be far more effective in doing so (Hough, 2004 p. 190). Chapter One Literature Review ‘Urban Planning and the British New Right’, by Allmendinger and Thomas was primarily used as a source of reference for the ways in which the Conservative governments between 1979 and 1997 altered housing and economic policies in Britain. This book also contained information about the introduction of more extensive government environmental protection policies, which were started during that period of Conservative administration. The book demonstrates the contradictions between the strong Conservative support for free market economics and the increasing understanding that central government needed to act to protect the environment. Brian Clapp’s ‘An Environmental History of Britain from the Industrial Revolution’ is a good source of information with regard to development land and the impact of the green belt zones on limiting building programmes to already urbanised areas. The book provides a useful insight into the establishment and the continued maintenance of green belt zones in modern Britain. ‘An introduction to Human Geography – Issues for the 21st century’ by Daniels, Bradshaw, Shaw, and Sidaway proved a useful source of information about development and the environmental impacts of human activity such as constructing buildings and using fossil fuel in buildings. The book assists in explaining why such impacts on the environment would provide a catalyst for sustainable architecture. ‘Modern architecture – a critical history’ by Kenneth Frampton was used as a source of pictures and reference for information about architectural styles and building materials. There was also a brief section concerning the planning of the new town constructed at Milton Keynes during the early 1970s. ‘The Earth Transformed – an introduction to Human Impacts on the Environment’ by Goudie and Viles was used to obtain information about development land and the impact of unsustainable architecture and building techniques upon pollution levels and global warming. The book contained information about the harmful consequences of global urbanisation and industrialisation. ‘Cities Natural Process – A basis for sustainability’, by Michael Hough was a useful reference book for discussing development land and issues that relate to enhancing environmental sustainability. This book was also useful because there was a greater focus upon Britain within it. The book contained suggestions and examples of how sustainability could be achieved with the help of sustainable architecture. ‘Postwar – A history of Europe since 1945’ by Tony Judt was solely used for information about immigration into Britain in the last decade or so. ‘Sustainable Architecture: Introduction to Sustainable Design by’ Kim and Rigdon is an article which explores the theoretical and practical background to sustainable architecture. It was used to gain information for the chapter, which dealt with sustainable architecture specifically. That information was also for the chapter concerning the need for any new construction programmes in the South-East of England to embrace sustainable architecture. ‘Pollution Prevention in Architecture – Introductory Module’ by Kim, Rigdon, and Graves provides further theoretical and practical insights into the ideas contained within the notion of sustainable architecture. This article contained strong arguments as to why sustainable architecture should be implemented across the world and not just in a single specific region of one particular country. This article proved a sound reference for the chapters concerning sustainable architecture and the necessity of its use in the South-East of England. ‘Towns, plans, and society in modern Britain’ by Helen Meller was used to gain background knowledge of the establishment of a more vigorous and restrictive planning regulatory framework brought into operation after the end of the Second World War. That information was then included within the introduction and the specific chapter dealing with the pressures upon the use of development land. ‘Urban and Environmental Planning in the UK’, by Yvonne Rydin provides useful information concerning the protection of the environment through planning regulations and restrictions. Provides good reference material as to how the British government and the European Union have attempted to reduce environmental damage through restrictions on development land and building or other regulations to cut pollution and enhance sustainability. ‘A History of Britain 3, End of Empire 1776 – 2000’, by Simon Schama was used to gain information as to why the Conservative party did not overturn the extended provision of council houses introduced by the Atlee government until after 1979. The book also had information about the ideological changes that Margaret Thatcher brought into Britain and the consequences of such changes. ‘An Environmental History of Twentieth Century Britain’ by John Sheail was a book, which discussed the developments within the environment of Britain between 1900 and 2000. Sheail examines how the understanding of environmental issues in Britain developed in the latter part of the twentieth century. The book was informative in relation to the development of policies that were intended to protect the environment and promote sustainability. ‘The City – In time and space’ by Aidan Southall was a book used to assist with the description and evaluation of the use as well as the restrictions placed upon the availability of development land within Britain. Southall’s account in particular provided information concerning the effective regeneration of brown field sites within the immediate vicinity of London besides providing an insight into the construction of the new towns in the aftermath of the Second World War. ‘Ecological Architecture: A critical history’ by Steele provided some useful practical and theoretical information about the concepts and the designs of sustainable architecture. ‘Life Cycle Analysis for Automobiles’, by Sulivan and Hu was used solely for the data concerning the amount of energy needed to produce aluminium, polyethene, PVC and steel, comparing the consumption to produce the materials new with when those products are recycled. ‘Urban Planning Since 1945’ by Nigel Taylor was a highly useful source of information with regard to the development and the continuation of planning restrictions as well as building regulations. The information about the uses of town and country planning besides the motivations for the establishment and the continuation of green belt land areas was of great use. Taylor also included some succinct information about environmental sustainability within this book. Brenda Vale’s ‘Green Architecture: Design for a Sustainable Future’ is a good introduction to the concepts and the designs most strongly linked with sustainable development. Chapter Two Development Land Prior to the start of the twentieth century there was very little formal or legal regulation or planning undertaken when it came down to the use of development land. There was in effect little to prevent the construction of new building programmes, let alone notions about limiting the size and the scope of such programmes to protect the environment or promote ecological sustainability (Taylor, 1998 p. 3). Central government by and large did not intervene to prevent individuals, businesses of various sizes, or indeed local authorities from using development land in any way that they wished to do so. The central government was willing to permit any parties to construct new buildings upon such development land, especially if the party responsible for constructing such buildings already owned the land, which was been built upon (Greed, 1996 p. 2). The freedom with which new buildings could be built was demonstrated by the ability of the majority of landowners to choose the style of archi tecture in the construction of their homes, factories, or shops. Landowners had the option of making their buildings as grand as possible or as cheap to construct as possible (Kim Rigdon, December 1998 p. 5). They did not have to consider that their right to build on their land would be restricted by the location of that land in relation to the nearest city or its place in the countryside. Landowners and their architects did not believe that there was any profound need to change what they built or how they built it in order to protect the environment and promote sustainability (Sheail, 2003 p. 2). Those building regulations that did exist were generally very minimalist in their actual nature, and were usually introduced on an ad hoc basis. Architecture and the development of land were more likely to be influenced by changes in technology or improvements in economic development, as well as change in fashion and styles (Meller, 1997 p. 63). For instance, these houses started to have gas, electricity, and water supplies installed. These supplies of utility services were regulated by the central government (Daniels, Bradshaw, Shaw, Sidaway, 2005 p.115). Those services were also supplied to factories and shops, which were increasingly subject to health, and safety standards that were intended to prevent accidents, yet paid no attention to the land that they happened to be constructed on (Sheail, 2003 p. 2). The nineteenth century witnessed a quantum leap forward in the amount of land, which was built upon due to a raising population as well as increased levels of industrialisation . These factors happened to coincide with the development of improved infrastructure such as roads, railways, sewage systems, public hospitals, and schools. The development of such infrastructure required large quantities of land, labour, and resources to be successfully completed, whilst in turn promoting higher levels of industrialisation and the migration of people from the countryside to the expanding cities. Some cities and regions benefited economically from such industrialisation more than others did. In Britain, industrialisation benefited the regions surrounding Birmingham, Manchester, Liverpool, and Glasgow. Over all though London and the South-East of England retained their position as the most prosperous region within Britain. Industrialisation came at a cost, namely pollution and greater levels of social inequality (Southall, 2000 p. 335). The development of gas, electricity, and water supplies alongside sewage systems made domestic houses more comfortable to live in an d factories more productive due to having greater efficiency (Daniels, Bradshaw, Shaw, Sidaway, 2005 p.115). Before a system of urban and rural planning were introduced there was no specifically set aside development land. Market forces determined the use of land and what if anything was built upon it. If landowners found that their land was most profitably used for agricultural purposes then it would remain as agricultural land (Taylor, 1998 p. 3). If, however more money could be made from building houses, shops, or factories on their land, then that is what usually happened to that land. Landowners could also be tempted to sell their land to property developers, construction firms, or industrial enterprises if they were lucky enough to own land that those other parties felt in urgent need of developing (Meller, 1997 p. 62). It was market forces that drove the industrial revolution in Britain as well as also promoting the process of urbanisation. The processes of industrialisation and urbanisation meant that cities such as London, Birmingham, Manchester, and Glasgow greatly expanded in ter ms of both their geographical areas and their total population levels, which led to shrinkage in the size of rural areas in Britain as a whole (Southall, 2000 p. 335). It was also market forces that determined the location, size, and scope of housing, factories, and commercial buildings. There were no limitations to the size, location or scope of such buildings, and absolutely no attention was given to the environmental consequences of these building programmes (Sheail, 2003 p 2). The absence of building regulations and restrictions on the use of land meant that there was a great deal of unhealthy and substandard slum housing, which caused widespread illness. Illness occurred besides reflecting the poverty of those people that were unfortunate enough to have to live in such areas (Daniels, Bradshaw, Shaw, Sidaway, 2005 p.115). Planning regulations would have undoubtedly improved conditions, for instance introducing proper sanitation into the slums or having substandard housing replaced by higher quality houses for people to move into (Southall, 2000 p. 335). In rural areas fears that heavy industry and unsightly slums would eventually over take all the land within their close proximity prompted the foundation of organisations dedicated to the physical preservation of the countryside, the rural way of life, and its wildlife (Clapp, 1994 p. 138). The countryside preservation organisations would eventually have a strong influence on the establishment of the gree n belt zones and the restricted availability of development land in the more predominantly rural areas of Britain (Allmendinger and Thomas, 1998 p. 55). It was after the end of the First World War that the central government and local authorities took a greater interest in the construction of housing and how land was actually being used in domestic housing and industrial or commercial construction programmes. The role of the market in deciding how many houses were built and the location of where those houses were constructed was reduced with the development of council houses (Taylor, 1998 p. 3). The provision of affordable housing built by local authorities and subsidised by central government funding meant that there was increased public involvement in the determination of land usage. The use, abuse, or the non-use of land was no longer solely determined by market forces. The involvement of central government and local authorities was intended to reduce poverty, ill health, and social exclusion. At no point in the inter-war period were measures taken to introduce town and country planning with the intention of protecting the environ ment or promoting sustainability as nob