The development of lithography and photography in the nineteenth century

Background Prior to the 19th century, art was vibrant. Artists prepared various forms of artwork for both commercial purposes and personal enjoyment or aesthetic value (Acconci Acconci Studio 2004, Para. 4). The society was appreciative of precious artwork such as Leonardo da Vinci’s Monalisa and Van Gogh’s pieces.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The development of lithography and photography in the nineteenth century specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Part of their allure was the fact that these pieces were extremely rare. Only a handful of collectors could afford the exorbitant prices set for each piece because similarly, only a few artists of the time could reproduce with skill and precision copies of the originals worth a collector’s money (Bearden 2003, Para. 3). Consequently, art was remarkable, and the few artists whose talents were undeniable reveled in the glory that their work gave t hem. However, in the 19th century, the art world experienced a few fundamental changes. The industrial era triggered most of these changes as people began to generate more income and consequently, more could afford to purchase rare art pieces (Berry 2010, Para.1). With this unprecedented increase in demand, artists had to keep up somehow, and individualistic hand printing was far too strenuous and time consuming. Ironically, not an artist but a playwright or dramatist came up with the idea and technique of lithography. He was seeking for a printing technique that would enable him to produce multiple copies of his play (Boone 2009, Para. 5). Alois Senefelder, an Austrian dramatist in Bavaria invented the technique of lithography. Initially, the only available printing techniques were relief printing, which involved carving out the surfaces of flat surfaces and applying ink on the projecting surfaces, and then pressing a paper onto the inky surfaces to provide images (Babb 1998, 34). The other technique, intaglio, or engraving involved making indentations on a flat surface and filing these with ink, and then using an uncompressed paper to get the image by sucking up the ink from the indentations (Close 2005, 24). Both of these methods were tiresome and could not satisfy the demand for reproduced artwork, hence the use of lithography and photography to complement these. The result was that artists made more reproductions over shorter periods using far less labor. Whereas this seems like a positive development, it had repercussions, as well. The generic artist almost died. Thesis During this time, as is also the case in contemporary art circles, artists could barely survive on the benefits that accrued from their various works because it took most of their lives before the world recognized or even acknowledged their work (Cornell 1995, 102). Consequently, money was not an incentive to produce art and mostly, the source of most of these artists’ ambition was the spirit of competition or restrained curiosity and interest.Advertising Looking for essay on art? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Most of them lived on commissions, which were rare and meager, so they had to find alternative means of income in other professions such as teaching and farming or even industrial labor (Dante 2007, Para. 3). For this reason, when the reproduction techniques of lithography and photography came up, most of the artists at the time viewed this as a gold mine. It was an avenue for them to produce multiple copies of either their own personal work or that of other artists. Moreover, these techniques made it possible for the artists’ works to get to the public much easier. Newspapers and televisions could now illustrate artists’ works, and the public could order for various pieces (Dali 1958, 45). The result of this was that artists produced far less original pieces focusing more on mass production to satisfy the demand. Consequently, art almost died. However, some artists sought to preserve the sanctity of original production, as opposed to mass production. These artists insisted on doing their own drawings and paintings as a way of rebelling against the new culture of mass production (DePaoli 1994, 34). Nevertheless, they were not so many as to halt the progress of lithography and photography altogether. The impact of their efforts was minimal because they too in trying to make a living had to conform to society’s demands, which could only be satisfied by applying lithography and photography among other production means (Digital Art Practices Terminology Task Force (DAPTTF) 2004, Para. 2). As a result, although their efforts did not stall the advancement of lithography and photography, it at least preserved some artistic patriotism to the traditional methods of painting and drawing. Development of Lithography Lithography as a printing technique came into o peration in 1796, when Alois Senefelder (1771-1834), an Austrian dramatist in Bavaria sought to produce multiple copies of his plays through mass reproduction (Digital Art Practices Terminology Task Force (DAPTTF) 2004, Para. 2). As noted above, prior to lithography, the dominant printing techniques were relief printing and intaglio or making engravings on surfaces and filling these with ink, and then printing. Both relief printing and intaglio featured printing on a varying surface (Doisneau 2001, Para. 3). Lithography involved printing on a flat surface. The basic principle, which informs lithography, is the mutual or simultaneous repulsion of grease and water.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The development of lithography and photography in the nineteenth century specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The artist draws an image on a fine, flat piece of limestone using a greasy crayon and then wets the limestone wit h water. Next, he applies a greasy ink on the wet surface, and the parts with the greasy crayon absorb this ink while those without crayon markings repel the ink because they are wet with water. The next step is to place a paper on the inky surface and apply sufficient pressure to ensure that the paper captures the image on the limestone (Drucker Emily 2009, 12). The artist can repeat this process as many times as s/he wishes, depending on the number of reproductions s/he intends to make. Initially, lithographs were monochromatic and crude, but as time passed, various artists sought to improve the technique resulting in chromolithography, which involved the use of up to twenty different colors on an image. In 1820, artists discovered that it was far better to use thin metal plates, and they turned to zinc, aluminum, and copper plates. The advantage of using metal was that one could bend it and fit it onto the cylinder of a rotary press for high-speed printing. With the invention of lithography, the limitations of engravings no longer limited artists in the production of their works and so they could produce better-detailed images (Ernst 2005, 56). Later, photolithography saw to the reproduction of photographs, drawings, and illustrations. Effects of mass-production of lithographs on art With lithography as a means of mass reproduction, hand produced art dwindled. Most artists focused on satisfying the demand for already existing artwork and forgot about creating original work (Esaki 1957, 79). Even those who still created original pieces were seasonal in their artistry because they would draw a piece and take time off to market and reproduce it, and only draw another when the one they were reproducing stopped selling. Moreover, the development of lithography resulted in a compromise, in the quality of art. Many artists were in a rush to complete artworks and others sought to replicate either aspects of or the entire lot of their colleagues’ works becau se these were all readily available (Hawley 1997, 110). Consequently, if an artist’s personal business were not flourishing, he would simply take up another artist’s work and reproduce it for sale (Weitman 1999, 43). However, not all artists were as greedy or unfocussed. Some of them rallied against the use of this technology in producing artistic work. These artists argued that, mass-reproduced artwork could never take the place of originally produced pieces simply because the mass-reproduced pieces lacked the careful attention and dedication of the artist in working on each piece (Thompson 2004, 25).Advertising Looking for essay on art? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Despite the fact that this argument carried weight as illustrated by the relatively cheaper prices of mass reproductions, it neither stopped the middle-class consumer, which was the bulk of the society anyway, from purchasing these pieces for hanging on their walls nor other consumers from using lithographic images in advertising and entertainment (Raimondo 2004, 5). Consequently, business in art flourished. This, coupled with the fact that even the artists who were against this new technology still profited from the same technology, watered down any effective fire that the arguments may have started. Examples of artists who sought to preserve the sanctity of hand-produced artwork include William Blake, specifically when he produced his Jerusalem painting (Morris 2009, 32), and Dante Gabriel Rossetti, a painter, poet, and illustrator who was a romanticist after the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. Their intention in producing counter-culture artwork was to reform art by rejecting mechani cal processes in art production. Dante Rossetti’s The Girlhood of Mary Virgin, 1849 was one such counter-cultural piece whose uniqueness was unrivalled. It was a piece of double artwork comprising of two accompanying sonnets and a comment on the painting (McGann 2009, Para. 3). Nevertheless, although they waged a valiant war, Blake and Rossetti’s livelihood were dependent on industrialization (Melua 2010, Para. 3). Blake made a living out of commercial commissions while Rossetti was a translator and illustrator of mass produced literature (Lewis 1990, Para. 3). Consequently, theirs was a case of preaching water and drinking wine, and their artists ignored them. However, they had an impact on art in the 19th century to the extent that they preserved originality in artistry by producing their own pieces originally. Development of Photography Photography refers to the art of drawing with light (Berry 2010, Para. 3). The photographer uses light to record or capture an obje ct or a scene on a light-sensitive screen or surface (Goldberg 1991, 34). In photography, the camera is an extension of a person’s eye and mind. As a camera, it is simply an object and only becomes a constructive tool that one can use to capture images once a person with the necessary skill wields it (Jeanne 2003, 96). The concept of photography bears heavily on light control. As early as during Leonardo da Vinci’s time, the principle of camera obscura (Berry 2010, Para. 4), simply translated to mean ‘darkened room’ had grasped the attention of many artists. Initially, artists used a large room with a diminutive hole on one of the walls to serve as the only source of light and consequently set in focus a given image. The resultant image was inverted but exceptionally clear and detailed (Kluver 1997, 40). The concept evolved into a pinhole camera and reduced in size until artists finally had a portable camera with two mirrors at 45 degrees to produce an upr ight image. Nevertheless, the images were temporary in nature, and as soon as the object moved or the light shifted, they would fall out of focus. In the early 19th century, Joseph Nicephore Niepce conducted various experiments with lithography and he discovered a method that could permanently capture images in a camera obscura for at least eight hours (Lewis 1990, Para. 4). This was in 1827 when Niepce recorded the world’s first surviving photograph. Elsewhere, Daguerre had been experimenting with silver iodides to capture images on a light sensitive film. Upon hearing about Niepce’s success, he went over, and they formed a partnership in 1829. Under Niepce’s guidance, Daguerre invented the Daguerreotype, which involved production of images on a chemical surface (Berry 2010, Para. 2). However, one could only produce a single image at a time, and the procedure was complex (Lunar 2008, Para. 3). Moreover, reproduction through the same process was impossible, and the object had to remain motionless for several minutes before the artist captured its image. Nevertheless, the resultant images were of high quality with details clearly captured and artists soon adopted this method in the production of portraits. Examples of artists famous for this technique include Albert Sands Southworth and Josiah Johnson Hawes among others (Tucker et al 2003, 23). William Henry Fox Talbot used different chemicals to come up with a different procedure that had almost similar results in terms of image production, although his images were of a poorer quality (Mercer 2008, Para. 3). However, an artist could use his method to reproduce images and so he had a large following. Examples of some prominent photography artists include Roger Fenton, who produced the camp scenes of the Crimean war and Matthew Brady and his associates, who reproduced the scenes of the American Civil War. Others are Hine Lewis and Jackson William Henry, a landscape and portrait photographer respectively, who worked as the official photographer for the United States Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories (Berry 2010, Para.3). Effects of mass reproduced photographic images on art Initially, many artists rejected the notion of photography as a viable artwork. This is because they focused on the disconnection between the photographer and the camera, which was more technical or mechanical. Consequently, there was disparity in distinguishing the photographer as the artist as opposed to the camera. To counter this argument, Pierre Bourhan says of the Japanese artist Keiichi Tahara, â€Å"Once the eyes and the viewfinder have done their work, Tahara’s hands continue the search. In subsequent elaboration, the artist chooses the support (the glass plate), the dimensions, the form of treatment, the framing, then puts it all together and situates it in space – the installation. Then and only then, after going through these transitional stages, do we h ave the work – fulfilled, transcendent, as far removed from reality as a statue or a painting can be† (104-105). Similarly, Joan Fontcuberta stated of Pablo Picasso, Salvador Dali, Joan Miro, and Antoni Tapies, â€Å"in the domain of cameras and photochemistry†¦photography became a fabulous apparatus for intensifying the gaze and a medium for generating novel experiments. In a word, they showed us once and for all that lens, light and photosensitive materials are merely tools that, like the brush and pigment, further the artist’s work† (Fontcuberto 1995, 9). Finally, Fontcuberta states of Salvador Dali, â€Å"In the same way that automatic writing enabled unforeseen poetic associations to be revealed, so photography provided a way for the Surrealists to fix the unconscious of the gaze. Dali was attracted unusually early on by the transformative capacity of the camera†¦ pictorial interventions on different photos and various collages help us comp rehend the powerful influence of the photographic vision† (91). The results of introducing photography into the 19th century were both positive and negative. For instance, artists could now record realistic images that would ordinarily have taken skilled artists hours or even days to draw within mere seconds (Melua 2010, Para. 2). It was also a powerful means of communication, a mode of visual expression, and a means for the crystallization of memories. Moreover, photographers’ skill was applicable across the board ranging from astronomy, to medical diagnosis and even industrial quality control. It introduced a technique that could capture details too minute or fast in motion for the naked eye, and could be placed in areas too dangerous for human reach (Meggs 1992, 34). With all these new and appealing qualities, the public swayed in its loyalty to traditional art. People found photography to me more convenient and cheap as they could use the cameras themselves to captu re images without the need for an artist. With time, people adopted photography as a career or as a hobby that kept them occupied (Mazur 1997, 57). Soon, museums started displaying photography work and critics began to scrutinize various elements of images captured in various fashions. Many forgot about art, and only rich collectors seemed interested in acquiring paintings or drawings. Consequently, the world forgot about traditional artists once more, and this time, it seems as though it will be for good because photography has only progressed since then (Mason 1982, 45). Nevertheless, if one is being objective about art, then there is no reason to see this as a digression of art rather than a progression because traditional art comprised of images such as portraits of live personages or captures of various sceneries and other features of an artist’s environment (Lewis 1990, Para. 3). Photography is just a faster and more accurate depiction of the same. The only deduction is the artist’s time and labor. Conclusion Lithography and photography were new techniques that took the 19th century by a storm. Consequently, different people reacted differently to their integration into the world of art. Nevertheless, they were progressive in their contributions to the art world because the product of photography for instance was the goal of any artist who drew or painted. Images resulting from photography were unflawed, easier and faster to produce. The artists would undoubtedly feel cheated of the experience of coming up with that image, but in the end, everybody was happier with the quality of photographs. Lithography, on the other hand, was also a means to an end, the end being the mass reproduction of artwork (Meggs 1997, 45). Due to the industrialization that rocked Europe in the 19th century, more people could afford paintings, although not at the exorbitant prices of original works, but at a standardized price. To satisfy this demand, artists needed a printing technique that was more efficient than hand production, and lithography provided this solution (Tucker et al 2009, 36). As to whether lithography and photography resulted in a near death of traditional artistry, the answer is affirmative. Nevertheless, if one looks at all this from the perspective of the original intent of art, or the goal of an artist commissioned to draw or paint the portrait of a live subject, photography does not seem lethal to art at all, it seems like a solution to a problem or the artist’s goal. Appendix of images The Belle Epoque, a lithographic image. The 1845 poster for Honore de balzac’s Petites Miseres de la Vie Conjugale (The Little Miseries of Married Life) another lithograph. A lithograph with the Ukiyo-e influence on a belle à ©poque design. Reference List Acconci, Vito Y. Acconci Studio. Acts of Architecture at Contemporary Art Museum,  Houston 2001: Multi-Bed Series: #1, #2, #3, #5. New York: Collection of Acconci/ Acconci Studio, 2004. Babb, Fred C. Go To Your Studio and Make Stuff: the Fred Babb Poster Book. New York: Workman Publishing Co., Inc., 1998. Bearden, Romare B. Train Whistle Blues I, 1964: Collection of Laura Groscine, 2003. Web. Berry, Danielle H. History-What is Photography? Web. Boone, Gallery G. The Color Explosion: Nineteenth-Century American Lithography. Web. Close, Chuck M. Self-Portrait/White Ink, 1978; Self-Portrait, 1999; Self-Portrait, 2000;  Self-Portrait/Pulp, 2001. Chuck Close Prints: Process and Collaboration. Houston: University of Houston’s Blaffer Gallery, 2005. Cornell, Joseph V. Custodian (Silent Dedication to MM), 1963. Contemporary Arts Museum, Houston. Elvis + Marilyn: 2 x Immortal. Houston: University of Houston’s Blaffer Gallery, 1995. Dali, Salvador E. Baby Map of the World, 1939. Il volto di Mae West. Chicago: The Salvador Dali Art Gallery, 1958. Dante, Gabriel R. In Daydreams of Conformity. Revolt In the Desert. Web. DePaoli, Geri A. Ess ays and artworks created as cultural commentary or homage to the  mythic icons of American pop-culture – Elvis Presley and Marilyn Monroe.† In Elvis + Marilyn: 2 x Immortal. New York: Rizzoli International Publications, Inc., 1994. Digital Art Practices Terminology Task Force (DAPTTF). Printmaking Techniques. 2004. Web. Doisneau, Robert E. Musician in the Rain. Masters of Photography. Masters of  Photography. Web. Drucker, Johanna G., Emily, McVarnish S. Graphic Design History. In A Critical  Guide. New Jersey: Pearson Education, 2009. Ernst, Max M. The Couple, 1925. Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen. Imagine That!  Activitiies and Adventures in Surrealism. Rotterdam: Word Press, 2005. Esaki, Reiji F. Collage of Babies, 1893. The History of Japanese Photography.  Hokkaido: Hakodate Municipal Library, 1957. Fontcuberto, Joan W. Experimental photographic work of Picasso, Miro, Dali and  Tapies at Primavera Fotografica Biennial Festival, Barcelona. In The Artist and the Photograph. Barcelona: Actar, 1995. Goldberg, Vicki J. Discussion of emotionally charged iconic photographs describes  impact on society, influencing political and sociological behavior. In The Power of Photography: How Photographs Changed Our Lives. New York: Abbeville Publishing Group, 1991. Hawley, Michael B. Artworks use digital image â€Å"tiles† from Internet retried by software  program. In Photomosaics: Robert Silvers. New York: Henry Holt and Company, Inc., 1997. Jeanne, Claude C. Running Fences, 1972-76. Collection of artist. Project for  the Charles M. Schulz Museum,. Postcard 4 x 6in.,compare Goldsworthy’s Storm King Wall,1997-98. California: Santa Rosa, 2003. Kluver, Billy M. One day’s photographs of Picasso and friends at Cafà © de la Rotonde,  focusing on Jean Cocteau’s 1916-17 collaboration with Satie and Picasso on the ballet, Parade. In A Day with Picasso: Twenty-four Photographs by Jean Cocteau. Cambridge: The MIT Press , 1997. Lewis, John G. Printed ephemera : the changing uses of type and letterforms in English  and American printing. Web. Lunar, Kelb D. Early Printing Processes. Web. Mason, Robert G. Photography as a Tool. In Photography introduced as tool of  human exploration in science, technology, and aesthetics. Chicago: Time-Life Books, 1982. Mazur, Thomson J. The Origins ofGraphic Design in America, 1870-1920. Toronto: Yale University Press, 1997. McGann, Jerome J. Dante Gabriel Rossetti 1849. In The Girlhood of Mary Virgin. Web. Meggs, Phillip W. A History of Graphic Design. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1992. Meggs, Phillip W. A History of Graphic Design. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1997. Melua, Josh L. Printings, Drawings and Photographic Images. Web. Mercer, Peter K. History of printing. Web. Morris, William C. Balance Through Art. Web. Raimondo, Joyce N. Imagine That! Activities and Adventures in Surrealism. New York: Watson-Guptill Publications, 2004. Thompson, Jeffery D . Patterns structure brainstorming, creative work, and meditative inspiration. In Creative Mind System. Chicago: The Relaxation Company, 2004. Tucker, Anne G. et al. The History of Japanese Photography. New Haven: Yale U. P., 2003. Tucker, Anne G. et al. The History of Japanese Photography. New Haven: Yale U. P., 2009. Weitman, Wendy D. Printmaking and Pop Art development in catalogue for exhibition  at Museum of Modern Art. In Pop Impressions Europe/USA: Prints and Multiples from the Museum of Modern Art. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1999. This essay on The development of lithography and photography in the nineteenth century was written and submitted by user Lexi House to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

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How things Revealed: In 1994 Pakistan’s Federal Investigation Agency started looking into financial affairs of Sharif and his family, the inquiry was supervised by Rahman Malik, Director General of the agency, the inquiry took 5 years and they came up with the shocking revelations in 1998. The records, includes signed affidavits from Pakistani officials, property records and bank files and other government document stated that Mr. Sharif and his family benefited from national wealth and all above scandals were revealed at that time. The report in the end state that â€Å"The extent and magnitude of this corruption is so staggering that it has put the very integrity of the country at stake.† (Baker, 2005, p. 84). Rahman Malik in an interview said that â€Å"No other leader of Pakistan has taken that much money from the banks. There is no rule of law in Pakistan. It doesn’t exist.† (Wwiner LeVine, 1999) The consequences: After things were revealed General Pervaiz Musharraf (former chief of army) and other political leaders and legislators convicted Sharif and penalized to life prison, but in 2000 deported him to Saudi Arabia. His wrong actions motivated other politicians to continue on the same track of corruption with the nation as later in 2008 another corrupt politician Asif Ali Zardari (former Prime Minister) appeared and looted the nation the same way Sharif did. The trust of people on politicians flew away as their money was misused by those with power and authorities, patriotism decreased and now people are more interested in personal growth rather than cumulative growth as nation. In addition to this mess in 2013, Sharif again become the Prime Minister of Pakistan and all the charges were cleared by National Accountability Bureau (NAB) to let him take part in election , this has showed the nation that money and power speaks more than anything else. (Nasir, 2013) Ethical Issues: The key ethical issues which were violated in the case were betraying to the citizens of the country, misusing and stealing of national assets, theft, taking and giving bribe to accomplish personal interest and unethical use of power and authorities. The Prime Minister in a democratic country is elected by its citizens as they trust them and give the responsibility to use national assets for the growth of country and value the basic understandable principle and ideology of the nation but in Sharif’s case he did many unethical act for which he was supposed to be guilty but somehow he managed to escape and pushed the values and feeling of citizens into stake. His duty and principles ruined the phenomena of ethical politics his decisions in political career were neither systematic, self-conscious, or reflective nor well-reasoned. As it is said â€Å"Ice melt from the top† his acts also let other government officials to escape through the hands of law and continue to work u nethically. Laws are not made to break and in the eye of legislation everyone is equal. But in this case equality has disappeared like smoke in air. What’s greater than a loss of trust from citizens of a country towards it’s appointed leaders, current political condition had made a great impact on a nation’s social ethical dimensions, things that were supposed to be ethically wrong has now become a part of system, adding to this mess lack of literacy has contributed to choose a wrong political leader. References Baker, R. W. (2005). Dirty Money at Work. In Capitalisms Achilles Heel (pp. 82-83). Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley Sons, Inc. Crilly, R. (2013, May 11). Pakistan elections: Nawaz Sharif eyes return to power. Retrieved from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/pakistan/10046017/Pakistan-elections-Nawaz-Sharif-eyes-return-to-power.html Hindustantimes. (2013, May 12). Once exiled, Nawaz Sharif makes triumphant return to Pak politics. Retrieved from http://www.hindustantimes.com/: http://www.hindustantimes.com/news-feed/pakistanpolls2013/once-exiled-nawaz-sharif-makes-triumphant-return-to-pak-politics/article1-1059015.aspx Jhootay Log. (2011, Dec). Retrieved from http://jhootaylog.wordpress.com/: http://jhootaylog.wordpress.com/nawaz-sharifs-corruption/ Khan, E. (2013). Top 10 Pakistani Richest People. Retrieved from http://www.wonderslist.com/: http://www.wonderslist.com/top-10-pakistans-richest-people/ Nasir, J. (2013, Apr 9). NAB, FBR clear Sharif brothers on charges of tax evasion. Retrieved from http://www.aaj.tv: http://www.aaj.tv/2013/04/nab-fbr-clear-sharif-brothers-on-charges-of-tax-evasion/ Wwiner, T., LeVine, S. (1999, October 21). Former Leader of Pakistan May Face Corruption Trial. New York Times. [Dirty Money of Mian Muhammad Nawaz Sharif] – June 20141 The South-East of England: Land Development Issues The South-East of England: Land Development Issues Pressure on development land in the South-East of England: The need for sustainable architecture. Introduction Chapter One Literature Review Chapter Two Development Land Chapter Three Sustainable Architecture Chapter Four South-East of England The purpose of this dissertation is to discuss and evaluate the pressure on development land in the South- East of England, and how that pressure relates to the need for sustainable architecture. The reasons for there being pressure on development land in the South-East of England will be described and analysed, as will any differences with the other regions of Britain. The reasons for setting aside or using the available development land and why sustainable architecture should be adopted in the South-East of England will be fully evaluated. As will be demonstrated there are various and competing factors that apparently increase the pressure to make full use of all available development land in the South-East of England. The available development land in the South-East of England is in high demand to be used for the construction of domestic housing, as well as for commercial, leisure, and industrial building programmes. To a large extent central government and local authorities have attempted to control the construction of such new building programmes through systems of urban planning, as well as building regulations that have applied across the whole of Britain. The reasons why the South-East of England should have a need for sustainable architecture will also be examined in depth. The case for making all the new construction projects designed around the concepts of sustainable architecture shall also be examined, to discuss whether more environmentally focused building designs will lessen the impact of new construction programmes, as well as reducing long-term pollution. Introduction Sustainable architecture and the use of development land are closely linked with the practices and theories of what form the basis of urban and rural planning, as well as ideas concerning the necessity for long-term environmental sustainability. Urban, and to a lesser extent rural planning, became more widespread in their application throughout Britain after 1945, when increased levels of central government intervention were experienced in many social and economic fields. Planning was deemed to be the best way of solving Britain’s housing problems (Taylor, 1998 p. 3). Increased levels of urban and rural planning were justified at the end of the Second World War due to the need for extensive post-war reconstruction. The South-East of England in general, and London in particular had suffered from widespread bomb damage, which meant that fully or partially destroyed houses, factories, and retail units had to be replaced by well planned buildings which would be an improvement upon the previous buildings. In the immediate post-war period it was believed that a systematic use of town and country planning would be essential for the reconstruction of Britain, with a much higher standard of building to match higher employment, the welfare state, and the National Health Service. The purpose of these policies and institutions was to prolong life and promote good health throughout the whole population (Meller, 1997 p67). The increased use of urban and rural planning was not intended to protect the environment in an ecological way, or indeed to promote sustainable architecture, rather it was greatly expanded in scope to make the most rational use of scarce development land. However, there would be measures adopted which would conserve large areas of countryside, and give protection despite the need to re-house millions of families in 1945 (Southall, 2000 p. 336). There were groups that wished to conserve specific areas that supported rare forms of animal and plant life, and even groups that wished to preserve old historical buildings, as well as buildings distinguished by their architectural styles (Meller, 1997 p67). When added together such groups did not equate to an ecological lobby that intended to change agricultural, architectural, or industrial practices to protect the environment. These groups however, were able to heavily influence the decision to restrict urbanisation taking over the countr yside. Post-war reconstruction was the catalyst for the largest programmes of publicly funded construction in Britain. Public expenditure was needed due to the sheer scale of reconstruction required, with London and the South-East of England being a major beneficiary of those programmes. Architecture and planning were used for these large-scale programmes rather than just for individual buildings. The involvement of central government in the promoting and funding of large-scale public building programmes and the use of development land was high until the early part of the 1970s (Greed, 1996 p. 35). Such wide-ranging building programmes were not only intended to replace the buildings destroyed during the Second World War. The post-war building programmes were also intended to replace the slums in the inner cities of London, Birmingham, Liverpool, as well as elsewhere. The construction programmes were intended to make the South-East of England a much more hospitable place to live in, just as the rest of Britain was also intended to be like (Sheail, 2002 p. 62). New construction and renovation of existing houses was an imperative, as â€Å"2 million of them condemned and another 3 million lacking in essentials† (Southall, 2000 p. 337). The South-East of England also benefited from the construction of new towns such as Milton Keynes and Stevenage that were planned as entire towns with purpose built domestic housing and business premises. The Atlee government was so keen upon the creation of new towns to solve the post-war housing shortages that it regulated such construction through the New Town Act of 1946 (Sheail, 2002 p. 62). The construction of the New Towns was considered to be essential for both high economic growth and for solving the national post-war housing shortage. The Atlee government regarded the new towns as being highly beneficial to people’s health as they moved away from major cities and industrial areas to places with cleaner air (Meller, 1997 p67). In ecological terms such construction was harmful to the environment as more land was built upon and it meant a greater amount of pollution from traffic emissions, though of course nobody understood such implications at that time. Improvements in transport infrastructure and increasing levels of car ownership meant that the new towns were economically viable, as well as allowing their inhabitants to commute to the major cities to work in them (Daniels, Bradshaw, Shaw, Sidaway, 2005 p. 147). Urban planning was thus considered to be very useful for the progress and development of Lo ndon and the South-East of England, which traditionally has been the most populous and prosperous region of Britain. Urban planning was also intended to increase the prosperity levels of the other regions in Britain to be as high as possible to match the levels achieved in the South-East of England (Southall, 2000 p. 337). Controlled expansion of urban areas into the new towns was intended to solve the immediate post-war housing shortage and revive the British economy, whilst leaving the great bulk of the countryside untouched by new housing construction (Taylor, 1998 p.3). Previous improvements in agricultural techniques meant that farming became more efficient nationally which had quickened the pace of urbanisation in Britain as a whole. Urbanisation in Britain had already had a strong impact upon the environment that went beyond the replacement of the countryside with polluting factories and unhealthy slum housing (Southall, 2000, p. 335). Higher crop yields from less land had the consequence that more land in rural areas became available to be used as development land. The greater availability of former agricultural land meant that is was easier to find enough land to construct new towns or expand existing cities across Britain. Urbanisation was a process that was accelerated by the need of industrial towns and cities to find workers to continue their expansion (Goudie Viles, 1997 p. 5). To begin with, the majority of new homes were traditional style houses that formed large council house estates right across the country, in architectural terms there was very little innovation or thought given to making the new housing stock architecturally sustainable or environmentally friendly. More attention was instead devoted to making all new houses comfortable, clean, and ensuring they were being built to last (Greed, 1996 p. 35). The new homes were intended to be better and larger than the ones that they had replaced. The majority of large cities and the new towns in Britain had millions of council houses built in their areas between 1945 and the early 1970s. However, it was much harder to find adequate amounts of development land in inner city areas which led to the building of high rise tower blocks which allowed a greater number of people to be housed without increasing the total area of the development land required (Sheail, 2002 p. 62). Unfortunately, high rise tower bl ocks constructed during the 1960s and the 1970s in the South-East of England, as well as nationally failed to be an adequate form of long- term and sustainable architecture that allowed people to be housed in safety or comfort. The failure of many high rise tower blocks to be sustainable forms of housing had the affect of increasing the pressure on development land. It has also meant that tower blocks have had to be refurbished or more frequently demolished (Meller, 1997 p. 63). As the picture below shows the 1950s and the 1960s also witnessed the construction of low-rise apartment blocks which have proved to be longer lasting than tower blocks built during the same period of time. The picture is of apartment flats constructed in Ham Common in Richmond between 1955 and 1958 (Frampton, 1997 p. 266). Although the amount of new housing construction was considerable not all the available land had been developed or built upon. Land remained set aside for agricultural purposes, whilst other land was left un-built upon and not always used for farming. The land that was left alone and was set aside and thus not allowed to be used for domestic housing or industrial sites were referred to as the green belt. The green belt was created to act as a buffer zone between urban and rural areas as a means to limit urbanisation (Greed, 1996 p. 82). Central government set aside areas that were designated as green belt zones to preserve the countryside nationally as well as solely in the South-East of England. Although, it was possible to build on green belt land the process of gaining planning permission from central government and the relevant local authority was a long drawn out one which deterred most property developers and construction firms from doing so. Local interest groups have often bei ng highly vocal in their opposition to any schemes that have been suggested (Clapp, 1994 p. 138). Clapp estimated that with national parks and designated green belt zones that in England and Wales â€Å"more than a fifth of the countryside now has stringent protection against development† (Clapp, 1994 p. 140). Therefore, the bulk of available development land was concentrated in urban areas, often referred to as brown field sites (Greed, 1996 p. 82). For central government there are advantages for using brown field sites (Kim Rigdon, December 1998 p. 5). For instance, using such sites allows for economic regeneration, employment creation as well as less pressure to build on green belt land. Recycling land on brown field sites is a method of preserving rural areas being used as development land (Clapp, 1994 p.139). The pressure to use greater amounts of development land has arguably increased significantly in recent years throughout Britain as a whole. The pressure to use development land has risen due to a combination of social, economic, and political factors. For instance, in social terms the demographic changes to the British population have had significant, and it could even be argued, profound effects upon the demand for development for new construction programmes. These demographic changes have occurred as a consequence of the British population ageing, the increasing number of adults who live on their own, as well as the major increase in the number of immigrants who have settled in Britain in the past decade or so. These changes have meant that more people within Britain are seeking a higher number of places to live in. Another reason for the raised levels of pressure upon development land is caused by the potential financial gains from building new houses, as well as new retail or ind ustrial complexes. The level of financial gains that could be made has been boosted since 1979 by the shifting away from the publicly funded housing programmes to a market led approach to determining the rates of new housing construction and the ownership of existing housing (Allmendinger and Thomas, 1998 p. 5). Of course even greater numbers of domestic homes and retail premises has a knock on effect on the amount of infrastructure such as schools, hospitals, and roads which are required in Britain as a whole. The building of new forms of infrastructure will only increase the environmental impact of new construction programmes (Kim Rigdon, December 1998 p. 5). A fuller explanation and a more comprehensive examination of the increased pressures on the development land in Britain in general will be presented in the specific chapter on development land. The more detailed evaluation of the pressures upon development in the South-East of England will be presented in the specific chapter about the South-East of England. Not only has there been pressure to use more development land in Britain generally and in the South-East of England in particular, there has been more pressure for new construction programmes to use building techniques and technology linked with sustainable architecture. Sustainable architecture may have been a concept, which started in the United States, yet it could be very important to put its ideas into action across the globe (Kim Rigdon, December 1998 p. 5). The notion of sustainable architecture is in itself influenced by ideas about making or enabling architecture maximise the utility and the subsequent life span of all new construction, whilst minimising the amount of resources needed in the initial construction and the maintenance of buildings. Sustainable architecture, when possible, uses resources that is renewable, recyclable, and biodegradable. There are various motivations for adopting sustainable architecture when it comes down to the construction and the completion of all new building programmes. Motivations that include the minimising of development land used, as well as making use of new technology to conserve energy, the conservation or recycling of finite resources, as well as reducing the levels of water consumption. Reducing the level of pollution and attempting to slow down the consequences of global warming are also factors in the promotion and implementation of sustainable architecture (Kim, Rigdon, Graves, August 1998 p. 5). Of course, there is the influence of legislation upon the use of sustainable architecture techniques to reduce the environmental and ecological impact of new construction programmes. Property developers and construction firms have to comply with measures to protect the environment introduced by the British government and the European Union (Hough, 2004 p. 190). As will be shown in the specific chapter about sustainable architecture the majority of methods used to improve environmental sustainability are relatively straightforward to incorporate into the designs of new building programmes, and in some cases into existing buildings. Sustainable architecture could be achieved by using construction materials that are less damaging to the environment, or materials that have been obtained from recycled and renewable resources. Making buildings as environmentally sustainable as possible during new construction projects (as will be examined in greater depth) will achieve the over all objectives of those that practice and argue for the implementation of sustainable architecture. It is most practical to install features or equipment which enhances environmental sustainability during new construction projects rather than afterwards. The pressures to adopt sustainable architecture in many ways are contradictory, yet are also connected with the pressure s to raise the levels of development land used up for new building programmes. Other motivations for adopting sustainable architecture include applying measures that are requirements for gaining planning permission, as well as ensuring that all new buildings comply with all the minimum standards for safeguarding the environment set by the British government and also by the European Union. The British government has set standards for domestic and retail buildings since the 1950s. For instance, to rid London of its previously renowned smog and fog by reducing smoke emissions from domestic homes and factories alike under the auspices of the Clean Air Act. The European Union has taken a greater interest in promoting environmental sustainability since the 1980s, believing that such actions to protect the natural environment on a regional rather than a national basis would be far more effective in doing so (Hough, 2004 p. 190). Chapter One Literature Review ‘Urban Planning and the British New Right’, by Allmendinger and Thomas was primarily used as a source of reference for the ways in which the Conservative governments between 1979 and 1997 altered housing and economic policies in Britain. This book also contained information about the introduction of more extensive government environmental protection policies, which were started during that period of Conservative administration. The book demonstrates the contradictions between the strong Conservative support for free market economics and the increasing understanding that central government needed to act to protect the environment. Brian Clapp’s ‘An Environmental History of Britain from the Industrial Revolution’ is a good source of information with regard to development land and the impact of the green belt zones on limiting building programmes to already urbanised areas. The book provides a useful insight into the establishment and the continued maintenance of green belt zones in modern Britain. ‘An introduction to Human Geography – Issues for the 21st century’ by Daniels, Bradshaw, Shaw, and Sidaway proved a useful source of information about development and the environmental impacts of human activity such as constructing buildings and using fossil fuel in buildings. The book assists in explaining why such impacts on the environment would provide a catalyst for sustainable architecture. ‘Modern architecture – a critical history’ by Kenneth Frampton was used as a source of pictures and reference for information about architectural styles and building materials. There was also a brief section concerning the planning of the new town constructed at Milton Keynes during the early 1970s. ‘The Earth Transformed – an introduction to Human Impacts on the Environment’ by Goudie and Viles was used to obtain information about development land and the impact of unsustainable architecture and building techniques upon pollution levels and global warming. The book contained information about the harmful consequences of global urbanisation and industrialisation. ‘Cities Natural Process – A basis for sustainability’, by Michael Hough was a useful reference book for discussing development land and issues that relate to enhancing environmental sustainability. This book was also useful because there was a greater focus upon Britain within it. The book contained suggestions and examples of how sustainability could be achieved with the help of sustainable architecture. ‘Postwar – A history of Europe since 1945’ by Tony Judt was solely used for information about immigration into Britain in the last decade or so. ‘Sustainable Architecture: Introduction to Sustainable Design by’ Kim and Rigdon is an article which explores the theoretical and practical background to sustainable architecture. It was used to gain information for the chapter, which dealt with sustainable architecture specifically. That information was also for the chapter concerning the need for any new construction programmes in the South-East of England to embrace sustainable architecture. ‘Pollution Prevention in Architecture – Introductory Module’ by Kim, Rigdon, and Graves provides further theoretical and practical insights into the ideas contained within the notion of sustainable architecture. This article contained strong arguments as to why sustainable architecture should be implemented across the world and not just in a single specific region of one particular country. This article proved a sound reference for the chapters concerning sustainable architecture and the necessity of its use in the South-East of England. ‘Towns, plans, and society in modern Britain’ by Helen Meller was used to gain background knowledge of the establishment of a more vigorous and restrictive planning regulatory framework brought into operation after the end of the Second World War. That information was then included within the introduction and the specific chapter dealing with the pressures upon the use of development land. ‘Urban and Environmental Planning in the UK’, by Yvonne Rydin provides useful information concerning the protection of the environment through planning regulations and restrictions. Provides good reference material as to how the British government and the European Union have attempted to reduce environmental damage through restrictions on development land and building or other regulations to cut pollution and enhance sustainability. ‘A History of Britain 3, End of Empire 1776 – 2000’, by Simon Schama was used to gain information as to why the Conservative party did not overturn the extended provision of council houses introduced by the Atlee government until after 1979. The book also had information about the ideological changes that Margaret Thatcher brought into Britain and the consequences of such changes. ‘An Environmental History of Twentieth Century Britain’ by John Sheail was a book, which discussed the developments within the environment of Britain between 1900 and 2000. Sheail examines how the understanding of environmental issues in Britain developed in the latter part of the twentieth century. The book was informative in relation to the development of policies that were intended to protect the environment and promote sustainability. ‘The City – In time and space’ by Aidan Southall was a book used to assist with the description and evaluation of the use as well as the restrictions placed upon the availability of development land within Britain. Southall’s account in particular provided information concerning the effective regeneration of brown field sites within the immediate vicinity of London besides providing an insight into the construction of the new towns in the aftermath of the Second World War. ‘Ecological Architecture: A critical history’ by Steele provided some useful practical and theoretical information about the concepts and the designs of sustainable architecture. ‘Life Cycle Analysis for Automobiles’, by Sulivan and Hu was used solely for the data concerning the amount of energy needed to produce aluminium, polyethene, PVC and steel, comparing the consumption to produce the materials new with when those products are recycled. ‘Urban Planning Since 1945’ by Nigel Taylor was a highly useful source of information with regard to the development and the continuation of planning restrictions as well as building regulations. The information about the uses of town and country planning besides the motivations for the establishment and the continuation of green belt land areas was of great use. Taylor also included some succinct information about environmental sustainability within this book. Brenda Vale’s ‘Green Architecture: Design for a Sustainable Future’ is a good introduction to the concepts and the designs most strongly linked with sustainable development. Chapter Two Development Land Prior to the start of the twentieth century there was very little formal or legal regulation or planning undertaken when it came down to the use of development land. There was in effect little to prevent the construction of new building programmes, let alone notions about limiting the size and the scope of such programmes to protect the environment or promote ecological sustainability (Taylor, 1998 p. 3). Central government by and large did not intervene to prevent individuals, businesses of various sizes, or indeed local authorities from using development land in any way that they wished to do so. The central government was willing to permit any parties to construct new buildings upon such development land, especially if the party responsible for constructing such buildings already owned the land, which was been built upon (Greed, 1996 p. 2). The freedom with which new buildings could be built was demonstrated by the ability of the majority of landowners to choose the style of archi tecture in the construction of their homes, factories, or shops. Landowners had the option of making their buildings as grand as possible or as cheap to construct as possible (Kim Rigdon, December 1998 p. 5). They did not have to consider that their right to build on their land would be restricted by the location of that land in relation to the nearest city or its place in the countryside. Landowners and their architects did not believe that there was any profound need to change what they built or how they built it in order to protect the environment and promote sustainability (Sheail, 2003 p. 2). Those building regulations that did exist were generally very minimalist in their actual nature, and were usually introduced on an ad hoc basis. Architecture and the development of land were more likely to be influenced by changes in technology or improvements in economic development, as well as change in fashion and styles (Meller, 1997 p. 63). For instance, these houses started to have gas, electricity, and water supplies installed. These supplies of utility services were regulated by the central government (Daniels, Bradshaw, Shaw, Sidaway, 2005 p.115). Those services were also supplied to factories and shops, which were increasingly subject to health, and safety standards that were intended to prevent accidents, yet paid no attention to the land that they happened to be constructed on (Sheail, 2003 p. 2). The nineteenth century witnessed a quantum leap forward in the amount of land, which was built upon due to a raising population as well as increased levels of industrialisation . These factors happened to coincide with the development of improved infrastructure such as roads, railways, sewage systems, public hospitals, and schools. The development of such infrastructure required large quantities of land, labour, and resources to be successfully completed, whilst in turn promoting higher levels of industrialisation and the migration of people from the countryside to the expanding cities. Some cities and regions benefited economically from such industrialisation more than others did. In Britain, industrialisation benefited the regions surrounding Birmingham, Manchester, Liverpool, and Glasgow. Over all though London and the South-East of England retained their position as the most prosperous region within Britain. Industrialisation came at a cost, namely pollution and greater levels of social inequality (Southall, 2000 p. 335). The development of gas, electricity, and water supplies alongside sewage systems made domestic houses more comfortable to live in an d factories more productive due to having greater efficiency (Daniels, Bradshaw, Shaw, Sidaway, 2005 p.115). Before a system of urban and rural planning were introduced there was no specifically set aside development land. Market forces determined the use of land and what if anything was built upon it. If landowners found that their land was most profitably used for agricultural purposes then it would remain as agricultural land (Taylor, 1998 p. 3). If, however more money could be made from building houses, shops, or factories on their land, then that is what usually happened to that land. Landowners could also be tempted to sell their land to property developers, construction firms, or industrial enterprises if they were lucky enough to own land that those other parties felt in urgent need of developing (Meller, 1997 p. 62). It was market forces that drove the industrial revolution in Britain as well as also promoting the process of urbanisation. The processes of industrialisation and urbanisation meant that cities such as London, Birmingham, Manchester, and Glasgow greatly expanded in ter ms of both their geographical areas and their total population levels, which led to shrinkage in the size of rural areas in Britain as a whole (Southall, 2000 p. 335). It was also market forces that determined the location, size, and scope of housing, factories, and commercial buildings. There were no limitations to the size, location or scope of such buildings, and absolutely no attention was given to the environmental consequences of these building programmes (Sheail, 2003 p 2). The absence of building regulations and restrictions on the use of land meant that there was a great deal of unhealthy and substandard slum housing, which caused widespread illness. Illness occurred besides reflecting the poverty of those people that were unfortunate enough to have to live in such areas (Daniels, Bradshaw, Shaw, Sidaway, 2005 p.115). Planning regulations would have undoubtedly improved conditions, for instance introducing proper sanitation into the slums or having substandard housing replaced by higher quality houses for people to move into (Southall, 2000 p. 335). In rural areas fears that heavy industry and unsightly slums would eventually over take all the land within their close proximity prompted the foundation of organisations dedicated to the physical preservation of the countryside, the rural way of life, and its wildlife (Clapp, 1994 p. 138). The countryside preservation organisations would eventually have a strong influence on the establishment of the gree n belt zones and the restricted availability of development land in the more predominantly rural areas of Britain (Allmendinger and Thomas, 1998 p. 55). It was after the end of the First World War that the central government and local authorities took a greater interest in the construction of housing and how land was actually being used in domestic housing and industrial or commercial construction programmes. The role of the market in deciding how many houses were built and the location of where those houses were constructed was reduced with the development of council houses (Taylor, 1998 p. 3). The provision of affordable housing built by local authorities and subsidised by central government funding meant that there was increased public involvement in the determination of land usage. The use, abuse, or the non-use of land was no longer solely determined by market forces. The involvement of central government and local authorities was intended to reduce poverty, ill health, and social exclusion. At no point in the inter-war period were measures taken to introduce town and country planning with the intention of protecting the environ ment or promoting sustainability as nob

St. John’s Wort :: Depression Medicine Medical Plant Papers

St. John’s Wort What is St. John’s Wort? St. John’s Wort (Hypericum Perforatum) is a small plant with bright yellow flowers. Wort is an old English term that means plant. The red spots on the leaves of the plant are symbolic of the blood of St. John after his beheading. The plant is grown worldwide but it grows especially well in parts of Northern California and Southern Oregon (http://www.doctormurray.com/articles/worteditorial.htm). St. John’s Wort has not been well known in the United States until recently. Studies on the medicine have been going on for decades in Europe. German doctors have been prescribing it and the insurance companies have been paying for it. It is available in many health shops in the United States and all across Europe but recently it has been selling out because of its increased popularity. In the United States, manufacturers can’t advertise it as a treatment for depression and doctors can’t prescribe it because the FDA (Federal Drug Administration) won’t allow it. It has to be advertised as a contribution to emotional balance and positive outlook or promoting a sense of balance for people with mild depression, not severe or major depression. St. John’s Wort comes in one of three forms: liquid, capsule, and dried form. (http://www.vanderbilt.edu/AnS/psychology/health_psychologyStJohn.htm) What is the purpose of St. John’s Wort? St. John’s Wort use for depression, insomnia, and anxiety inspired a group of German doctors in the 1980’s to do research on the herb. The findings of their studies brought the group fame in the late 1990’s. A number of studies indicate that St. John’s is an effective treatment for treating mild-to-moderate depression (http://www.mothernature.com/cg/stjohns.asp). St. John’s is quickly becoming the most popular herbal drug in the United States. German physicians prescribed a total of 66 million daily doses in 1994. These German physicians now prescribe St. John’s wort an average of 8 times more than Prozac. These doctors claim that St. John’s wort produces better results in relieving depression, but the medicine does not have near the amount of side effects as Prozac (http://www.doctormurray.com/articles/worteditorial.htm). How does St. John’s Wort work? Originally, scientists thought that the reason St. John’s worked as an antidepressant was due to a substance called hypericin.

History of Hong Kong Art Village

(Eng. Summary) andrew lam (The section â€Å"History of Oil Street Architecture† was published in Hong Kong Economic Journal 2000-03-27) The First Stage – â€Å"The Oil Street† Period During the 17 months from August 1998 to the end of 1999, the Government Property Agency rented an abandoned governmental building at Oil Street, North Point to architects, designers, photographers, individual artists and art groups at a rental rate as low as HK$ 2. 5 / square ft. It gradually served as the nurturing ground for art education, creative industries and various kinds of exhibitions and performances. 3 large-scale art and culture festivals have taken place in the Art Village. More than 100 exhibitions and performances, which attracted more than 30,000 audiences, have been held throughout the year. The nature of activities were diverse to include theatre work, dance, folk art, ink painting, calligraphy, installation, photography, sculpture, painting, multi-media, video ar t, digital art, architecture, fashion design, performance art and music concert.The Oil Street Art Village was a cultivated space, which fostered local economies, creative industries and international art and cultural exchange activities. It attracted creative and enthusiastic individuals to involve and to arouse the interest of local and overseas press. The total area of the Oil Street building was 125,000 square ft. The gross floor area was estimated to be 160,000 square ft. 33 art groups and workshops, and more than 100 artists were stationed in the Art Village; while more than 721 artists and 3,000 art group members involved in various activities (it is approximately 30% of HK art field).More than 60,000 square ft. area served as performing space, rehearsal room, working area, and storage. The abandoned property was positively activated. In that short period of time, the art and culture industry built up a good partnership with the SAR government: the Art Village was recognized and supported by HKADC. In 98-99, the Planning Department pointed out that Oil Street Art Village was a successful model for land use transferral. All of the above prove that HK citizens urgently need the full support of the government to assist running a non-governmental and independent art village.It serves as a window and an opportunity for local art and cultural workers to showcase the power of creative culture. This is the gateway to develop Hong Kong into the brand new â€Å"art and cultural centre† in Asia, and to raise the image of HK in the global level. In 2000, the SAR government planned to sell the land through auction. Various units in the Art Village moved out and the land has been abandoned until today. Not only was the Oil Street Art Village destroyed, but the SAR government also lost nearly HK$ 10,000,000 of rental income since 2000.The Second Stage – â€Å"Cheung Sha Wan Warehouse† & Old Kai Tak Aiport Period The ex-slaughterhouse in Cheung Sha Wan and the ex-Kai Tak Airport Office Tower was temporarily let to Oil Street Art Village by the Government Property Agency. However, the space provided was not suitable for artistic activities. Many workshops and art groups such as 1aspace, Videotage, On and On Theatre, Zuni Icosahedron/Z+ etc. retreated or their activities suspended. Such a â€Å"hybernated† situation lasted for at least 1 and a half years. During the period, some art studio was transferred to Old Kai TatAirport venue and the studio of Tsui Pui Wan had organized an installation, which attracted wide public participation. The Third Stage – To Kwa Wan â€Å"Cattle Depot Artist Village† (CDAV) Period In July 2001, the Government Property Agency rented a renovated government property, the ex-quarantine station for animals (63 Ma Tau Kok Road, To Kwa Wan) to individual art groups and artists. Most of the architecture in the station is heritage. Some are over 100 years old. Units and Cultural activ ities in CDAV The total area of CDAV is 7,394. 93 square metres.It has 19 stationed art groups: Zuni Icosehedron, Ngau Pang Shue Sue Yuen, Artist Commune 63 Museum, Videotage, 1aspace, Frog King Museum, (szOf)-Tsui Pui Wan, Wee Design, Photo China. CC, Cut_N_try Workshop, Billy & Suzies, Tim Tsz Workshop, Possive Null Workshop, Kum Chi Keung Workshop, Steve Cheung-Work Zone, 2/3 Studio, N4 and so forth. Main publications in these two years include: â€Å"E+E† by Ngau Pang Sue Yuen,†¦. and many exhibition catalogues. Significant exhibitions held included â€Å"Tree. Man†: Danny Yung Solo Exhibition Tree Man in 2003, CADV held large-scale art festival, such as Cattle Depot Summer Days & Nights Arts Festival 2003.The studio zero O fish organized Summer Workshop 02, etc. The Book Festival was co-organized by Zuni Ngau Pang Sue Yuen and 1aspace with participation of 22 cultural organizations. It attracted more than 20,000 local citizens and book lovers. The Artist Comm une has also organized many societal and cultural exchange programs. In the future, the CDAV will develop as a non-profit making charity (NGO). We are also planning to make the best use of spaces in the village as a platform for experimenting civil art education and creative cultural industries, and as a channel to consolidate different social sectors and governmental departments.The CDAV will be the new fountainhead of Hong Kong culture, and it will foreshadow and set an example to evaluate the idea of the operation of the proposed West Kowloon Cultural District. City globalization and synchronization bring about the building of skyscrapers, highways, airports, etc†¦ Organizing international biennial, triennial, exposition and other great cultural events become inevitable in internationalization. The CDAV has long been a localized phenomenon, we pose the questions of globalization versus regionalism. In reality, there are 4 alternative spaces and 15 independent studios in the CDAV.For the past 2 years, they actively organized a great many of individual programs. They also organized joint events like community workshops and territory-wide art festivals. This proposal will present open studio project to create A CONCEPTUAL ‘COMPUTER HUB’ WHICH RE-UNIFIES THE WHOLE CDAV AGAIN. [1] The Experiment The Hong Kong CDAV is not a conventional museum for cultural display. It is an alternative space: a 7,394 sq meters art village with visual art and theatre group, big companies and individual studios living in symbiosis.In reality there are dreams and conflicts, expectations and competitions. Urgency and stability are side by side. In meeting this global event, the proposed CDAV project will not be a fabrication of un-real situation. In preparing for the exhibition, no pre-fabricated unit or exhibition system will be re-assembled in another site for exhibition. The studios of the CDAV is like ‘A MICROSCOPE’. It helps the international audie nce TO UNCOVER A WORLD OF ADVENTURE, EXPERIMENTATION, DISCOVERY AND WONDERS in the CDAV. There is NO GLASS OR INSTRUMENT USED TO MAGNIFY OR DISTORT FACT AND REALITY.Every object has to be viewed in actual size! Like the Berlin Biennale 2004, The CDAV studios portray reality and the CDAV artists provide such a visual excursion with a LIFE MANUAL. They themselves are the best exhibition documents and interpreters. BEYOND THE FRAME WE PROVIDE A NEW SPACE WHICH EXTENDS THE CONVENTIONAL PHYSICAL & CONCEPTUAL BOUNDARY OF AN EXHIBITION WITHIN THE ALREADY-EXISTING AND DEFINED AREA OF STUDIOS IN THE CDAV. The artists working in the CDAV studios take the opportunity to develop creative dialogue and exchange with the international curators and artists.The CDTV project will be in an interesting dialogue by using site-specific studio works showing artistic development from initial stage to final production, from conceptual building to theory formulation, from pre-exhibition studio discourse to p ost-exhibition debate. (  ¦ ) 2000-03-27 2004-06 (1999? ) (2003-2006) (1999) 1999? 11? 9? , , , > 006 2> 007 3> 007 4> 015 5> 016 6> 021 : 023 025 046 : †¦ , , , , (3? ) (1? ) (6? ); (2? ) (1? ) 1? , , , , , ; , , ; , , , , , , 2 , , , , : , , , , , , , , , ; , , , , , 1990? , ( ), , , , , , , , , , [2] , , , , , , , 2. 75 15 , 12? 5 , 31? , 6 Kwok and Cho Z+? Workzone Raymond Lau? Wong Chi Fei? Lily & Workshop? Qwert & Parallax Workshop? Xtreme Creative? Michael Chan Architects? James Wong & Andrew Lam? Vivian Lam? Ashley Hempsall? Tom Tong? May + Ling?Rensis Ho? Bone Wong Tim? Billy and Suzie? Edge? 1a Ringo Tang? 31 721? , 3? , 100 , 30,000 , , , [3] , , , , , , , : 1. , ( : )? 2. 2a , , , ,? 2b , : , , , , , ( ) , , ( , 2,000? , ) : , , 180 , (? ) (? ) (? ) (? ) (? ) (? (? ) , , , , , , ; , , , , , ; , , , , , , , , , , , 1A , Z+ , , , , , , , , , (C? D? ), , , , , , (Machine Aesthetic) , , , , , ,? 1998? 8 16 2. 75? 1 , 16 , 12? 5 , 30? , 6 , , , , 2000 , , : , 12? 15 , , , , 1998 , , , , , 98 , , , 1893 12 , [4] , , Victoria Regata Club , , , , [5], (E. M. Hazeland) [6], 1908? 3? 21 (Sir Frederick Lugard) ; , , , (Club House), , , , , , ; , , , , , , , , ; , 19 (Arts & Crafts Movement) [7]; , (1905? ) (1913? ) (1915? ) , , , , [8]1965? , – 1992? 10? , 1999? 11 , , , 1939 1964 1939 , 1950 941 , , , : i) 1969 (DYN1XB1B), , 1969? ; ii) 1945-64? 1:2,400 (HKR. S. No. 846(320)-D & S No. 1, Plan 1), A ,B ? C , , A 1964 1969 ; iii) 1950 :, , ( ), (B? ) , 50 ; iv) 50,000 , 1945? 50? , , 1950 v) 1939 , , , (Kellet Island) , , , 39 50 ,? 10 , ; vi) 1939? 103 , : 1939? 4? 26 , 16 , , 1939? ; vii) , C Z+ 1939 , , ; , , , , , , , , , Messrs Kin Lee & Co. , , (C? D? , , , , , (Machine Aesthetic)? , , , , , , ; , , ; , ; , , , ; , , , , ; , , ; , , , , , , , , 98 , , , , , , , , ,! , , ; , , , , , , , 100 , 20,000, , , , , , , ; , , , , , , , , , , , , , , : 1) 2) 98 80% , 97 5%? 3) 15% , , ; , , / / 97 2% 6% , 18% 23%, 15% 18% , [9] , , , , , , , ; , (Marginal Utility) : , , , , , , , , , : , , , , , , , , , , , , , , / , , , , / , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , – , :1) ( );2) ( ;3) ( )4) ( ) , ( , , , , , , , , ( ) , – 1. , 2. , , , 3. , , , , 4. , , , 5. , , , 6. , , / , , / , , 1. ( ) 2. ( ) 3. ( ) , , 4. ( ) 5. / / / ( ) / / , 6. / ( ) / / 7. / ( , ) , 8. ( ) , 9. ( ) 10. E & M? , ( ) ? 11. ( ) 12. ( ) ? 13. , ( ) ? 14. ( ) 15. ( ) ? 16. ( ) ? 17. ( ) 18. ( ) 19. ( ) ? 20. ( ) , , , , : 1. 2. , 3. , , 4. , ;? ii , , , , , : 1. , 2. , 2a , , , : ,? 2b , 1) : , , , , , , ?P. S. 1. , ; [10] , , , / , , , , , 1. : 1a , ;? 1b , , , , , , , ,! :1) , , ; , , ;2) , , , , , , , , , ;3) , ;4) , , ;5) , , , 2. : , (? ) / : , / , , , : 7A ( ) Dr. Morhard, Juergen, Consul of German Consulate (Hong Kon g)? Dr. Sacker, director of Goethe-Institute(Hong Kong)? Oscar Ho, exhibition director of HK Arts Centre? Renee Chan, art and design programme designer, HKU-Space? Ben Sumner, senior lecturer of APA? Chartered Society of Designers?Caroloine Cheng, director of The Pottery Workshop? Lam Yuen Mei? Gary Mak Sing Hei, associate director of Broadway Cinematheque? Cheng Wai Lau, manager of Theatre Ensemble? Irene Ngan, Program Manager of Goethe-Institut? Ip Yuk Yiu, Lecturer of City University? Linda Lai, assistant professor of SCM, City University? Nancy Tong, assistant professor of City University? Cheung Kai Sun, art director of Zebra Consultant? Simon Queeans, publisher of BC Magazine? Leung Chi Fan, vice-president of Hong Kong Society For Education In Art? Hung Chin Lu, director of Studio 22 Ltd.? Leong Ka Tai, director of Camera 22 Ltd.?Golden Cheetah Company? Wong Leung Sek Rupert, chairman of Hue Art Association? Shum Ka Chun, art dirctor of ICON? Wong Chack Kie, Associate Professo r of the Chinese University of Hong Kong? Li Chak Man, project manager of Yew Chung Education Foundation? Siu King Chung, assistant professor of HK Polytechnic University? Tang Shu Wing, artistic director of No Man Land Limited? Tsang Wai Yi Catherine Lau Lui Wai Kei Lam Wai Kit? Lau Chung Hang? Kelvin Tsang? Louisanna Chan? Steve Choi? William Thomas Dixon? Pegsi K C Wong? Betty Hung? Yik Fei? Natashia Ting Clorie Ng? Fanny Lam? Lau Mei Yee? May Fung? Yanpi Kwan Pui Yan?Wong Shun Kit? Hilary Binks John Thompson Chan Chui Hing, Nose? Mo-yung Yuk Lin Helen Leung Jenny Lam Chi Ling? Lichtenstein, Frederic? Vivian Chan Sau Han? Lee Kit Wai John Yip? Chan Tze Ming Liu Yuen Hung Jacqueline? Sandra L. Walters? Winton non Marsalis? Clarence Tsui Borezee? Blaise Lam Kam Ying? Wong Fung Ming? Tam Shiu Wah Hillman? Norris Ng? Lesley Chan Yan Yan,? Woo Vivian Cheng? Wai Kwan? Alice Chu? Cherie, Cheng Shui Che? Chan Wai Fun Dovas? Lau Wing Yin, Nataue? Kum Chi Keung? Tina Chan? Charles Lam? Mar ia Leung? Wei Peh Ti? Wong Hao An Alanie? Wong Gi Wai, Gigi? Winnie Lau? Paul Kember? Julita Lui Y. E.?Juliana Wong? Peter K. Ho? Jan Chu? Pamela Hoy So Ching? Quentin Fong Bryan Lay? Liu Ying Kei Carol? Robert Orien? Freddie Chan? Rachel Lee? Fornia Chan Siu Yim? Beryl Yau? Mimi Tung? Frank Yeung? Kearen Pang Yuri? Ng Lilian Chan : The Australian Network For Art and Technology? Artspace Visual Arts Centre, Sydney? Chinese Art News Magazine? Marina Grzinic, Fund For Video Art? Griffith Artworks, Griffith University, Australia? Videobrasil Festival, Brazil? Mike Stubbs, director of Hull Time Based Art, UK? Mike Leggett, Australia? Chang Young-Hae, Seoul?Wolf Kahlen, Germany? Evangelo Costadimas? Uwe Buchler, Werleitz? Gesellschaft, Germany? Steve Hawley, UK? Trevor Batten, Amsterdam? Veronica Needa? core member of Yellow Earth Theatre(London),†¦ : ( ) 1. 1. 1. , , , , , , , , , , , 2. 118? , 27 , ,? 27? , 10 ; (9? ) (8? ) (? 7? ), (6? ) (? 5? ) (4? ) 3 , 2 27 , 10? , 4? , , , , , (3? ) (1? ) (6? ); (2? ) (1? ) 1? , , , 2002 1 , [11] 3. , : ,†¦ , , [12] , , :?†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ ( ) , – [13] 4. , , , , , , , ,†¦ 5. , : ; , ; , , , , , [14] 2. 1. 2. 1. 1 : (Alliance of Artists' Communities AAC) (Artists Communities: A Directory of Residencies in the United States Offering Time and Space for Creativity) , 70 2. : , , , , 50% , , , , 4%? , : . (American Academy in Rome)[15] . (The Corporation of Yaddo)[16] . (The MacDowell Colony, Inc. )[17] 70 80 , 80 ; , , ( ) , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 3. : , (Artist’s House) , , , (Kunsterhaus)[18]? [19], : A: 20 B: 10-19? C: 4-9? D: 1-3? , 70 , 4-9 C ,? 40% A B D , 20%? , , , : , , , , , A? , , C 4. : , 20A , , 2? , B , 14? B , , 2 , 4-9 C , , , C , , , D , 14? , , , C , : , , , , , , , , , , 5. : , , [20] | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |A |12 |86% |0 |0 |1 |7% |0 |0 |1 |7% |0 |0 | |B |10 |72% |2 |14% |1 |7% |0 |0 |1 |7% |0 |0 | |C |18 |64% |2 |7% |3 |11% |2 |7% |1 |4% |2 |7% | |D |8 |58% |2 |14% |0 |0 |2 |14% |2 |14% |0 |0 | | |48 |69% |6 |9% |5 |7% |4 |5% |5 |7% |2 |7% | |? (1): , (69%) (9%) (7%) (7%) (5%) , 7% , (? A? D :86%? 72%? 4%? 58%) , , , , , , 2. 1. 6 : , ,? 72% 24%, , 4% , P. S. 1 I. S. P , , , , , , , , P. S. 1 , , :†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ , , , : , , , , [21] , , , , , , , (Conservatoire du Littorale), , , , , , , [22] , , , ; , , , , , , 7. : 1. : , , , , , : 2. 2. (i) 1) : , , ; , , 80%? (2) : , , ,†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦? , 80% , , , , , , 2. 2. (ii) (1) : 93% – , , ? (2) : , , , , : , , 71%? (3) : , , 39%? 2. 2. (iii) (1) : 29%? 2) : 26%? (3) : 23%? (4) : – , , , 4%? , , , 2. 3 A : 2. 3. 1 , A , , , , 3%? , , , , , ; , 2. : 70 , , : i) : , ii) : , , iii) : , , 97% 2? , Art Farm? Bemis Center for Contemporary Arts, , 3% , South Florida Art Center, 4 , ,? 9%? , , , ,

Strategic Management Example

Strategic Management Example Strategic Management – Coursework Example STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT Cost Leadership Strategies Cost leadership entails standardization by reducing costs. On the other hand, Strategic management enhances low-cost production for given levels of quality since the low-cost leadership targets broad markets (Peny 2013, p.45). The three primary cost leadership strategies used include competitive advantage strategy, differentiation strategy and focus strategy in the management of businesses and organizations (Hill, Jones & Schilling 2014, p.33). The essay focuses on BHP Billiton strategic report 2014, based the analysis of the three cost leadership strategies in the management of BHP Billiton Company. Consequently, in strategic management of cost leadership, only rare and valuable resources can be sources of competitive advantage (Porter 2010, p.2). In BHP Billiton Company, their ability to profitably transport their petroleum and minerals as valuable resources incorporate their competitive advantage strategy under cost leadership. Besid es, oil and minerals from BHP Billiton Company are rare and precious resources that enable standardization of costs hence incorporating competitive advantage in cost leadership management. Differentiation strategy entails the development of services and products that offer unique attributes (Barney 2001, p.41). The development of services and outputs allows for cost leadership by controlling costs of goods and services. In BHP Billiton Company, development of goods and services is through distribution and selling of products with regulation of financial risks associated with revenue in Market. Therefore, differentiation is a form of cost leadership that assists in the sale of products and services in the market Additionally, focus strategy narrows on a particular segment of cost leadership to achieve cost differentiation and advantage (Hitt, Ireland & Hoskisson 2014, p.22). Furthermore, the needs of a group or company become better by focusing entirely on a particular segment in man aging cost leadership strategy in the management of companies or groups. BHP Billiton Company focuses on improvement of productivity across all aspects of their businesses, hence enabling them to achieve cost advantages and differentiation in the market.BibliographyBarney, J. B 2001, Is The Resource-Based â€Å"View† A Useful Perspective For Strategic Management Research? Yes, Academy Of Management Review, 26, 1, pp.41-56. Hill, C., Jones, G., & Schilling, M 2014, Strategic Management: Theory: An Integrated Approach, Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning. Hitt., M., Ireland, D., R, & Hoskisson., R 2014, Strategic Management: Concepts: Competitiveness And Globalization, Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning.Peny, M 2013, Global Strategy, Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning.Porter, M.,E. 2010, Competitive Strategy: Techniques for Analyzing Industries and Competitors, Quick MBA, Internet Center for Management and Business Administration, Inc.

Free Essays on Business Management

1)Management is a set of activites(including planning and decision making, organizing, leading, and controlling)directed at an organazation’s resources(human,financial,physical and information) with the aim of achieving organizational goals in an efficient and effective manner. There is a difference between the terms efficiency and effectiveness. Efficiency is using your resources wisely in a cost effective way. It is getting the most out of your resources for the least amount of money. While, effectiveness is more of making the right decisions and putting the right person where they belong to maximize your organizations goals and where they can successfully implement them. 2) There are 4 basic management functions, they are planning and decision making, organzing, controlling, and leading. Planning and decision making involves setting the organazation’s goals and deciding best how to achieve them. Organazing is determining how best to group activities and resources. Controlling is monitoring and correcting ongoing activites to facilitate goal attainment. Leading is motivating members of the organization to work in the best interest of your organization. 3) There are three levels of management they are top managers, middle managers, and first-line managers. They all have different responsibilities. The top managers are a small group of executives who manage the overall organization. They are in charge of creating the organazation’s goals, overall stategy and operating policies. They also represent the organization with gov’t officials and members of other organizations. A middle manager is responsible for implementing the policies and plans developed by top managers and for supervising and coordinating activities of lower level managers. They are normally the largest group of managers in an organization. The last one is First-line managers. They supervise and coordinate the activities of operating employe... Free Essays on Business Management Free Essays on Business Management 1)Management is a set of activites(including planning and decision making, organizing, leading, and controlling)directed at an organazation’s resources(human,financial,physical and information) with the aim of achieving organizational goals in an efficient and effective manner. There is a difference between the terms efficiency and effectiveness. Efficiency is using your resources wisely in a cost effective way. It is getting the most out of your resources for the least amount of money. While, effectiveness is more of making the right decisions and putting the right person where they belong to maximize your organizations goals and where they can successfully implement them. 2) There are 4 basic management functions, they are planning and decision making, organzing, controlling, and leading. Planning and decision making involves setting the organazation’s goals and deciding best how to achieve them. Organazing is determining how best to group activities and resources. Controlling is monitoring and correcting ongoing activites to facilitate goal attainment. Leading is motivating members of the organization to work in the best interest of your organization. 3) There are three levels of management they are top managers, middle managers, and first-line managers. They all have different responsibilities. The top managers are a small group of executives who manage the overall organization. They are in charge of creating the organazation’s goals, overall stategy and operating policies. They also represent the organization with gov’t officials and members of other organizations. A middle manager is responsible for implementing the policies and plans developed by top managers and for supervising and coordinating activities of lower level managers. They are normally the largest group of managers in an organization. The last one is First-line managers. They supervise and coordinate the activities of operating employe...

Sustainable Talent Management Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Sustainable Talent Management - Research Paper Example † and recognize their Corporation’s talent pool. The personnel gap scrutiny helps recruiters to be exceedingly capable of delivering applicants that attain the fundamental expertise. This has been pre-established by the requirements of the position and the aims of the Corporation. It as well reveals a venture by the Corporation in the new personnel’s growth and progress, which expands a long-term affiliation of devotion and obligation (Berger & Berger, 2004). This is mutual for both the employee and the Corporation. Lost talent is expensive to restore, counter-productive to Corporation achievement so justifying the dangers linked with certifying job fit, and heartening growth and input are decisive to the achievement of the Corporation – and the worker. Creating a personnel talent management outline, which evaluates the voids amid an employee’s present performance and preferred expertise in that role, is imperative. Next, digging deep to recognize th e voids in talent all through the organization by establishing an organizational talent outline is imperative. Finally, gaining knowledge on how to control technology and compute performance at diverse levels of the firm is the final process. 2.0. Key Concepts and the Talent Review Process When people articulate aspects concerning talent pools they signify jobs, tasks or capabilities in a firm where 20 percent amplification in class or accessibility would formulate the principal difference to executive success. System for the Management of People (SMP) comprising of the talent pool growth course is centered on the notions and codes for an effectual managerial organization and administrative management, denoted to as the ‘obligatory organization’ model. Line directors will be educated in the framework of the execution and roll out of the course in their scopes of responsibility. A number of the key obligatory organization codes and perceptions regarding the talent pool s cheme are: †¢ All workers are an element of the talent pool. †¢ Individual's problem-solving capacities develop via adolescence and into adulthood, in expected patterns. This denotes that each person has an intrinsic prospective for cognitive growth after a while. The talent pool growth course is devised to side with the present and upcoming roles of personages with their personal potential. †¢ Line executives are liable for running talent, with human resources giving aid and support. †¢ The executive and manager-once-eliminated of either precise subsidiary has diverse accountabilities in regards of the current and future helpfulness of the inferiors: o The director, has a training role to make certain the worker is efficient in his/her present role. o The manager-once-eliminated, has a mentoring function to guarantee the subordinate expands to his/her complete potential. †¢ Judgments assumed as an outcome of the talent pool course are traced and moderated a mid directors and their managers-once-eliminated. Once moderated, every worker is given response on his or her growth graph to take the report of personal aspirations. †¢ Career growth plans are evaluated to guarantee these intentions are executed. Implementing the talent pool growth course in reviewing capabilities, moderating decisions and analyzing growth intentions is an annual process. 3.0. Talent Management Objectives to Measure Functional Expertise The aged